SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS—J. 435 
2. Prof. J. W. Brwwaes.—A Reconciliation of Current Theories of 
Emotion. 
For the introspectionist emotion is a stirred-up state of mind analysable into 
kinesthetic and organic sensations and feelings, which may or may not be 
further reducible to organic sensations. This is probably a correct account of 
emotion from the subjective and analytical standpoint. 
For the Behaviorist emotion is ‘ hereditary pattern-reaction involving pro- 
found changes of the hodily mechanism as a whole, but particularly of the 
visceral and glandular systems.’ Emotion is thus analogous to instinct, but 
the latter is chiefly a skeletal, and hence more overt response. This may be 
regarded as a true account from the objective standpoint. 
According ito the James-Lange theory the emotion is the consciousness of 
the response. James laid special emphasis on the skeletal response, Lange on 
the vascular. This view may be modified in such a way as to make the emotion 
the subjective accompaniment of the response, and the response that described 
by the behaviorist. 
According to McDougall, emotion is the subjective astect of an instinct. 
If we regard the instinctive response as chiefly skeletal and the emotional 
response as chiefly visceral, then the two will frequently occur together, since 
the same situation will often lead to both types of response. There is not, 
however, the necessary connection between the instinctive response and the 
emotion demanded by McDougall’s view. Skeletal and visceral responses may 
occur together, but skeletal may also occur without visceral or visceral without 
skeletal. Thus, for example, pugnacity and anger may occur together, but 
pugnacity may occur without anger or anger without pugnacity. 
Drever distinguishes between instinct-interest, which is the invariable accom- 
paniment of instinct-activity, and emotion, which occurs in consequence of some 
check to instinctive activity. Kantor expresses a similar view of emotion. 
As has been stated above, emotion may and often does accompany instinct- 
activity. If, however, the instinct-activity is checked, the energy, which would 
have been thus released, may be drained into the vegetative nervous system. 
The emotional respenses would then be increased, and the accompanying emo- 
tional consciousness intensified. The emotion is not due to the check, but may 
be intensified by it. 
All of the above theories are, therefore, part-truths or contain elements of 
truth, and most of them err in so far as a part-truth is mistaken for the whole 
truth. Emotion is a psychophysiological response of a particular kind. It has 
its subjective as well as its objective aspect. It is similar to, but not identical 
with, nor a necessary concomitant of instinct; and it may be intensified wher 
the instinctive response is checked. 
3. Mr. J. C. Futcrn.—Feeling and Emotion in Daily Life. 
4, Prof. W. Tarr.—Classification of Instincts. 
Many classifications of instincts have been made from the physiological point 
of view, such as Thorndike’s, which apparently does not differentiate instinct 
from reflex action. Others again, such as Warren’s, are a combination of 
logical, psychological, and social considerations. McDougall’s list is the only 
one which is psychological, and his appears to be based upon introspection. 
The present discussion owes its origin principally to McDougall and Rivers— 
the former’s ‘ Social Psychology’ and ‘ Outlines of Psychology,’ and the latter’s 
“Instinct and the Unconscious.’ Psychoanalysis, too, has been of service 
Briefly, it is held that. there are two primary or principal instincts which 
make for preservation of the race and the individual. The former may be 
termed the sex instinct; the latter the self instinct. They are mutually com- 
plimentary, although either one may be very indistinct in some individuals. 
These are termed primary instincts. 
Other instincts with well-marked emotional accompaniments may he con- 
sidered as subsidiary to these two, and the expressions of the latter as dependent 
upon the particular structure which the organism may pessess. For example, 
the food instinct may be part of the self instinct; nest-building, part of the 
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