106 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 



that cadastral maps have no military value, and are chiefly required for 

 revenue purposes ; and that such cadastral maps are documents mainly 

 for government use, or for occasional reference by the public, so that 

 reproduction and publication are unnecessary. 



As a result of these views we find that, generally speaking, European 

 countries have good topographical maps. The commonest scale is 

 1 : 100,000 (about |-inch to the mile), but there are variations, as, for 

 example in France, which has a 1 ; 80,000. ^ This map (called the General 

 Staff Map) is printed in black only, the hills being shown by vertical 

 hachures. The 1 : 100,000 maps of other nations are all published in 

 colours, and in most cases hills are shown by contours. 



In addition to the general maps referred to above, a good many 

 countries have topographical maps on substantially larger scales. For 

 example, in Germany a 1 : 25,000 map has been in preparation for a number 

 of years, and is nearly completed, while a 1 : 50,000 is in progress. Italy 

 has a 1 : 25,000 completed for populous areas, with a 1 : 50,000 for the re- 

 mainder of the country. Belgium has a complete 1 : 20,000 and 1 : 40,000 

 for the whole country. Holland (which by the way publishes no 1 : 100,000) 

 has a 1 : 25,000 and 1 : 50,000. France has begun a 1 : 50,000 map. These 

 larger scale topographical maps are all published in colours (though in some 

 cases there is also an edition in black only) and the hills are in all cases 

 shown by contours. 



All the countries mentioned have also general topographical maps on 

 smaller scales, usually 1 : 120,000, published in colours. 



Topographical maps in Europe are kept up to date more or less 

 systematically ; but they have not in all cases recovered yet from the 

 interference due to the war. 



It is interesting to note that the cadastral maps of Central and 

 Western Europe were mostly started in the Napoleonic era. They are 

 in all cases in charge of a cadastral or similar office under the Ministry 

 of Finance. The usual characteristics of these cadastral plans are as 

 follows. They commonly exist in manuscript only, a copy being pre- 

 served at each of certain centres (such for example as the headquarters 

 of the commune and of the department). Each commune is the subject 

 of a separate survey ; they show most land divisions (such as hedges, 

 fences, ditches, roads, rivers) but little or no other information. The 

 scale is usually 1 : 2,500, but there are variations ; and it is common to 

 find ' tableaux d'assemblage ' or index maps, for each commune, on a 

 smaller scale such as 1 : 10,000, showing the various ' section plans.' These 

 plans are available for inspection, and copies in manuscript can usually 

 be obtained on payment. 



In Italy and Germany we come for the first time to the idea of pub- 

 lishing the cadastral map. Italy has an old cadastral survey, varying 

 very much in quality in different districts ; but in 1886 a new survey was 

 ordered, based on the triangulation of the Istituto Geografico. The 

 normal scale in this survey is 1 : 2,000. Some of these new cadastral maps 



'^ There is a French 1 : 100,000, but it is not the official military map. It was 

 produced by the Ministry of the Interior mainly for the purpose of showing roads 

 and railways ; but it has now been taken over by the Service Geographique de 

 I'Arm^e. 



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