398 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 



life in particular, grows steadily in force especially throughout the period of adolescence. 

 Each of these two interests can best be served and utilised by the inclusion of 

 biological studies in the scheme of education — -the second interest no less than the 

 first, since the social and economic development of the human community is con- 

 ditioned ultimately by biological laws, as an unbiassed consideration of any given 

 political or economic problem will show. 



To ensure some degree of appreciation of the interrelationships of all living things 

 and of their ultimate dependence upon physiological and physico-chemical factors is 

 the surest way to extend the consciousness of the pupil beyond the narrow sphere 

 of individual entity, and to lay the foundations of a genuine and enlightened philosophy 

 of life — ' to see life steadily and see it whole ' ; education in its cultural aspect can 

 have no higher aim. 



But if its aim be such, biological education must be ' biological ' in the fullest 

 sense — must take as field the whole range of life, plant and animal kingdom alike ^ 

 and man in his own place — but must not, however elementary the instruction, ever 

 sacrifice its breadth of view. A casual lesson-series now on the butterfly, now on the 

 buttercup, now on the kangaroo, now on the much-martyred bean-seed, dealing in no 

 sort of sequence with such topics as the names of the parts of a flower and the number 

 of toes on pussy's foot, will serve no purpose in the general scheme, and scarcely more 

 will be gained even by a well-planned course in Botany alone throughout a number 

 of years in school life ; we may go farther and suggest that even parallel courses in 

 Botany and Zoology, run on separate lines, do not constitute truly ' biological study ' 

 and will not, unless unified by the philosophic approach, contribute greatly to the 

 end in view, if that end be cultural, as defined. 



From the standpoint of intellectual training in the schools, biology has been the 

 subject of a great deal of criticism ; its methods have been stigmatised as somewhat 

 vague and, while inculcating at best a habit of close observation, as unlikely to afiEord 

 a training in accuracy of method and inductive argument equal in value to that 

 given by the physico-chemical sciences. The answer to such a charge is best supplied 

 by a reference to the altered trend of modern biological science which, so far from 

 concentrating on the morphological details which once obscured its horizon, is now in 

 large measure concerned with physiological, ecological and economic topics. The 

 extension of our knowledge of the principles of these latter relationships has made it 

 possible to apply them to the conduct of even quite elementary biological work, and 

 a course arranged in such a way cannot fail to give strict training in accuracy of method 

 as well as observation, in inductive as well as deductive reasoning. 



The vocational aspect of school education is matter for serious debate ; the 

 general vocation of all pupils is citizenship, and the importance of biological studies 

 for this end has already been urged. In the higher tops of the Elementary School, 

 in the central School and in the middle forms of the present Secondary Schools, say 

 from the age of twelve to sixteen, the occupations followed in the locality may with 

 great advantage be drawn upon whenever appropriate, as for example in Agricultural 

 districts, without rendering the training ' vocational ' in the proper sense of the word.- 

 With regard to special vocational studies, we think that such should not be under- 

 taken by pupils under the age of fifteen or sixteen. 



To summarise, some general guiding principles may be set forward, as follows : — 



1. The general aim of school studies in Biology should be to inculcate a sound 

 appreciation of the natural laws which govern the lives of human beings no less truly 

 than they do those of other animals and of plants. 



2. The basis of the study should be close observation of plants and animals in 

 relation to their natural environment, and not as self-contained entities. 



3. Morphological study should be undertaken less for its own sake than for that 

 of its fundamental importance in the study of organic function. 



The actual building of a detailed scheme of work to range throughout the school 

 in accordance with those principles requires a great deal of close discussion. The 

 following general suggestions are made : — 



(a) The biological work of lower forms should consist mainly of direct observational 

 study of plants and animals on heuristic lines and using living specimens whenever 



1 This has been recognised in other countries more than here. See Appendix VI. 



2 We would take this opportunity of expressing ourselves in sympathy with the 

 general suggestions made in the ' Report of the Consultative Committee on the 

 Education of the Adolescent.' Board of Education. H.M. Stationery Office. 1926. 



