ON ANIMAL BIOLOGY IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 399 



possible ; simple morphological study should be throughout related to physiological 

 and ecological principles, growing plants and living animals (such as pond-animals, 

 earthworms, &c.) should be kept in the classroom and collected and tended by the 

 pupils themselves, and visits to museums, parks and botanical and zoological gardens 

 should be made as frequent as possible. 



(6) Biological study in the middle school should be correlated with work in 

 elementary Physics and Chemistry ; a special feature should be made of simple 

 experiments illustrating the fundamental processes of respiration, assimilation, &o., 

 in plants and animals alike, and their essential similarity to the corresponding pro- 

 cesses in man should be emphasised. The ease with which a number of physiological 

 principles can be demonstrated on the human subject should be borne in mind. The 

 idea of evolution should be implicit, and some indication given of the interrelations of 

 biology and social science. At this stage the human occupations, particularly those 

 followed in the locality, should be drawn upon as providing mental stimuhis. 



(c) For pupils above the age of sixteen more detailed morphological study of 

 animals and plants should be undertaken, but the greatest importance should be 

 attached throughout to the elucidation of the functioning of organs, and of the organism 

 as a whole, to ecological and bionomical relationships, and to the part played by the 

 individual and its race in the general economy of life. The interest of animals and 

 plants as factors in human culture and civilisation should be indicated and the influence 

 of man on the distribution of other organisms touched upon. Reference should be 

 made to the fundamental facts of geographical palaeontology. Group personal 

 investigation work should be carried out on simple but scientific lines. Some appro- 

 priate Elementary Chemistry should be here included if the pupils have not already 

 the requisite knowledge in this direction for a study of the desirable physiological 

 work. The work at this stage will generally fall within the scope of Higher Certificate 

 courses, and in view of the fact that there is an increasing tendency for the Higher 

 Certificate to become the entrance requirement of the Universities it would appear 

 imperative that the Universities and the school teachers should con.sider in co- 

 operation the arrangement of the work in relation to both the school and University 

 standpoints. 



With regard to syllabuses, we deprecate uniformity ; we would prefer to see 

 different syllabuses elaborated in various localities in accordance with local conditions. 

 We feel that it is fundamental to encourage individuality in teaching ; on the other 

 hand, it is desirable that the standard of achievement aimed at should be as far as 

 possible uniform. 



OUTLINE PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL SCOPE OF THE SYLLABUS IN 

 BIOLOGY FOR PUPILS OF 11 to 16 YEARS. 



The Syllabus should be drawn up in such a way as to avoid the complete separation 

 of plants and animals into two unrelated ' kingdoms ' for independent study. It 

 should be arranged with a view to emphasising their fundamental resemblances as well 

 as their differences, since the latter can hardly escape attention, while, unless caution 

 be used, there is some danger that the former may be overlooked. 



The study of function should be stressed throughout ; morphology should be 

 dealt with in sufficient detail (a) to assist in the understanding of function, (6) to lay 

 the foundations necessary for a grasp of the idea of evolution. 



The study of organic evolution should be implicit in the general arrangement of 

 the syllabus, rather than a matter for separate consideration ; a simple account of the 

 struggle for existence should, however, be given. 



To ensure the emergence of the idea of evolution it would perhaps be best to 

 arrange the course so as to commence with the simpler forms of life and lead gradually 

 up to man, but for the understanding of the relations between structure and function 

 it is best to commence with higher types — flowering plants, frog and man, and so to 

 proceed from the known to the unknown rather than from the simple to the complex ; 

 on balance it seems best to recommend commencing with the higher vertebrates. 



Physiological experiments should be introduced not only in regard to plants 

 but also to animals ; it is a grave mistake to suppose either that animals do not lend 

 themselves to simple experiment as readily as plants or that such experiments 

 must involve suffering.'' Many simple but useful physiological observations may 



" See W. J. Dakin's ' Elements of General Zoology.' Oxford Univ. Press, 1927. 



