462 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 



will [be gained even by a well- planned course in botany alone throughout a number 

 of years in school life : we may go farther and suggest that even parallel courses in 

 botany and zoology, run on separate lines, do not constitute truly ' biological study ' 

 and wUl not, unless unified by the philosophic approach, contribute greatly to the 

 end in view, if that end be cultural, as defined. 



From the standpoint of intellectual training in the schools, biology has been the 

 subject of a great deal of criticism ; its methods have been stigmatised as somewhat 

 vague and, while inculcating at best a habit of close observation, as unlikely to afford 

 a trainiiig in accuracy of method and inductive argument equal in value to that 

 given by the physico-chemical sciences. The answer to such a charge is best supplied 

 by a reference to the altered trend of modern biological science which, so far from 

 concentrating on the morphological details which once obscured its horizon, is now in 

 large measure concerned with physiological, ecological and economic topics. The 

 extension of our knowledge of the principles of these latter relationships has made it 

 possible to apply them to the conduct of even quite elementary biological work, and 

 a course arranged in such a way cannot fail to give strict training in accuracy of method 

 as well as observation, in inductive as well as deductive reasoning. 



The vocational aspect of school education is matter for serious debate ; the 

 general vocation of all pupils is citizenship, and the importance of biological studies 

 for this end has already been urged. In the higher tops of the elementary school, 

 in the central school and in the middle forms of the present secondary schools, say 

 from the age of twelve to sixteen, the occupations followed in the locality may with 

 great advantage be drawn upon whenever appropriate, as for example in agricultural 

 districts, without rendering the training ' vocational ' in the proper sense of the word.'' 

 With regard to special vocational studies, we think that such should not be under- 

 taken by pupils under the age of fifteen or sixteen. 



To summarise, some general guiding principles may be set fonvard, as follows : — • 



1. The general aim of school studies in biology should be to inculcate a sound 

 appreciation of the natural laws which govern the lives of human beings no less truly 

 than they do those of other animals and of plants. 



2. The basis of the study should be close observation of plants and animals in 

 relation to their natural environment, and not as self-contained entities. 



3. Morphological study should be undertaken less for its own sake than for that 

 of its fundamental importance in the study of organic function. 



The actual building of a detailed scheme of work to range throughout the school 

 in accordance with those principles requires a great deal of close discussion. The 

 following general suggestions are made : — 



(a) The biological work of lower forms should consist mainlj' of direct observational 

 study of plants and animals on heuristic lines and using living specimens whenever 

 possible ; simple morphological study should be throughout related to physiological 

 and ecological principles, growing plants and living animals (such as pond-animals, 

 earthworms, &c.) should be kept in the classroom and collected and tended by the 

 pupils themselves, and visits to museums, parks and botanical and zoological gardens 

 should be made as frequent as possible. 



(6) Biological study in the middle school should be correlated with work in 

 elementary physics and chemistry : a special feature should be made of simple 

 experiments illustrating the fundamental processes of respiration, assimilation, &c., 

 in plants and animals alike, and their essential similarity to the corresponding pro- 

 cesses in man should be emphasised. The ease with which a number of physiological 

 principles can be demonstrated on the human subject should be borne in mind. The 

 idea of evolution should be implicit, and some indication given of the interrelations of 

 biology and social science. At this stage human occupations, particularly those 

 followed in the locality, should be drawn upon as providing mental stimulus. 



(c) For pupils above the age oi sixteen, more detailed morphological study of 

 animals and plants should be undertaken, but the greatest importance should be 

 attached throughout to the elucidation of the functioning of organs, and of the organism 

 as a whole, to ecological and bionomical relationships, and to the part played by the 

 individual and its race in the general economy of life. The interest of animals and 

 plants as factors in human culture and civilisation should be indicated and the influence 



'^ We would take this opportunity of expressing ourselves in sympathy with the 

 general suggestions made in the Report of the Consultative Committee on The 

 Education of the Adolescent. Board of Education. H.M. Stationery Office. 1926. 



