ON SCIENCE IN SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS. 463 



of man on the distribution of other organisms touched upon. Reference should be 

 made to the fundamental facts of geographical palaeontology. Group personal 

 investigation work should be carried out on simple but scientific lines. Some appro- 

 priate elementary chemistry should be here included if the pupils have not already 

 the requisite knowledge in this direction for a study of the desirable pliysiological 

 work. The work at this stage will generally fall within the scope of Higher Certificate 

 courses, and in view of the fact that there is an increasing tendency for the Higher 

 Certificate to become the entrance requirement of the universities it would appear 

 imperative that the universities and the school teachers should consider in co- 

 operation the arrangement of the work in relation to both the school and university 

 standpoints. 



With regard to syllabuses, we deprecate uniformity ; we would prefer to see 

 different syllabuses elaborated in various localities in accordance with local conditions. 

 We feel that it is fundamental to encourage individuality in teaching ; on the other 

 hand, it is desirable that the standard of achievement aimed at should be as far as 

 possible uniform. 



OUTLINE PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL SCOPE OF THE SYLLABUS IN 

 BIOLOGY FOR PUPILS OF 11 to 16 YEARS. 



The Syllabus should be drawn up in such a way as to avoid the complete separation 

 of plants and animals into two unrelated ' kingdoms ' for independent study. It 

 should be arranged with a view to emphasising their fundamental resemblances as well 

 as their differences, since the latter can hardly escape attention, while, unless caution 

 be used, there is some danger that the former may be overlooked. 



The study of function should be stressed throughout ; morphology should be 

 dealt with in sufficient detail (a) to assist in the understanding of function, (6) to lay 

 the foundations necessary for a grasp of the idea of evolution. 



The study of organic evolution should be implicit in the general arrangement of 

 the syllabus, rather than a matter for separate consideration ; a simple account of the 

 struggle for existence should, however, be given. 



To ensure the emergence of the idea of evolution it would perhaps be best to 

 arrange the course so as to commence with the simpler forms of life and lead gradually 

 up to man, but for the understanding of the relations between structure and function 

 it is best to commence with higher types — flowering plants, frog and man, and so to 

 proceed from the known to the unknown rather than from the simple to the complex ; 

 <iu balance it seems best to recommend commencing with the higher vertebrates. 



Physiological experiments should be introduced not only in regard to plants but 

 also animals ; it is a grave mistake to suppose either that animals do not lend themselves 

 to simple experiment as readily as plants or that such experiments must involve 

 suffering.'' Many simple but useful physiological observations may be made on the 

 human subject direct, for example, counting the pulse and heart-beat, testing the 

 action of saliva on starch, demonstrating the evolution of 00-2 in respiration, the 

 excretory function of the skin, and a variety of observations on the senses. 



Consideration should be given throughout to the relation of the organism as a 

 whole to its natural environment and to the inter-relations between all the living 

 creatures which make up a biological commimity. Reference should be made, 

 wherever possible, to local industries in their relation to the biology of human com- 

 munities. Biographical notes on a few pioneers such as Darwin and Pasteur may 

 be introduced in illustration of the relation of Biology to human affairs in general. 



Practical work should include observations on living organisms in their natural 

 surroundings, experiments on their physiology, and the keeping of aquaria, terraria 

 and a school garden. The use of the microscope^ should be encouraged, but no great 

 stress laid on the elucidation of minute structure. There should be some dissection 

 of animal specimens sufficient to display the broader anatomical features ; whether 

 the dissection should be performed by the pupils themselves or by the teacher in 

 their presence must be largelj' determined by the time and facilities available. 



* See W. J. Dakin's ' Elements of General Zoology.' Oxford Univ. Press, 1927. 



^ For work up to School Certificate standard a single microscope at a cost of £3 

 will go a long way. Such an instrument is supplied by C. Baker, 244 High Holborn, 

 London, W.C. 1. It has a range of magnification of X 25 to X 220, covering ordinary 

 ' low power ' work. 



