ON SCIENCE IN SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS. 499 



lessons, and the indoor lessons sometimes develop into country rambles and 

 scientific excursions with a definite object in view on half-holidays. Outdoor 

 lessons in class hours are not usual. They have been found unsatisfactory, as 

 there are too many distractions and much valuable time is lost. 



In the Middle Division science becomes more systematic ; the system is 

 nob, however, that of the text-book, but is determined by the underlying 

 principle that the elements of botany, physics, chemistry, &c., shall be made 

 to throw as much light on country life as possible. The various subjects are 

 therefore blended more or less into a whole and not kept in watertight com- 

 partments. For convenience, chemistry, physics, and botany are treated 

 separately in different lessons, but one period per week is devoted to what 

 is called ' Eural Economy ' — an application of scientific knowledge to the 

 elucidation of the mysteries of rural life. 



The outlines of the chemistry, course at this etage are published and need 

 not be repeated here. (See ' A First Course in Practical Chemistry for Eural 

 Secondary Schools,' published by G. Bell & Sons, Is. 6d.) 



The physics course begins with a general lesson or two on matter and 

 its properties, and proceeds with heat — expansion, liquefaction, vaporisation, 

 conduction, radiation, absorption — temperature and its measurement; heat as a 

 form of energy — its production by chemical and physical means — its measure- 

 ment — specific heat — latent heat ; anomalous behaviour of water with respect 

 to heat and its importance in the economy of nature — vapour pressure — boiling; 

 atmospheric moisture — its measurement — effect on barometric height — the con- 

 nection of the barometer with weather phenomena, &c. 



Grneral Physics and Mechanics. — Methods of measurement — mass — density — 

 flotation — osmosis — surface tension — capillarity — fluid pressures — siphon — pumps 

 — hydraulic press — barometer- — Boyle's and Charles' Laws — levers — pulleys — 

 work — time and its measurements — friction (how minimised in machinery) — 

 inclined plane — parallelogram and triangle of forces — motion — velocity — 

 acceleration — momentum, &c. 



Botany. — The structure of a plant so far as observable with a pocket lens. 

 Seeds and seedlings — roots, their structure and work — stems, branching, buds, 

 effects of pruning — the green leaf and its work — flowers, essential and non- 

 essential parts, their use and importance — fruits, how formed, uses, dispersal, 

 life-histories of common plants and weeds. How plants feed — comparison of 

 plants, leading to a system of natural classification — contents of plant cells — 

 enzymes and their work — the nutrition of plants and animals compared — repro- 

 duction processes, &c. 



Rural Economy. — Soil, its origin, composition^agents of denudation — work 

 of lowly animal and plant life in formation of soil — characteristics of sand, 

 clay, silt, lime, humus — heavy and light soils — soil and subsoil — why differ- 

 ences — food materials of plants, how and whence obtained — fertility, how 

 maintained — tillage — reasons for operations — effects on soil moisture, soil air, 

 soil temperature, plant food, &c. — chemical knowledge applied to manuring 

 and its principles — farmyard dung — chemical fertili.=ers, their composition, 

 production, and mode of action — application of scientific principles to farm 

 operations, e.g. haymaking, grazing, ensilage — ^bacteria, yeasts, moulds and their 

 work — nitrification and densification — souring of milk — putrefaction — decay — 

 ripening of cheese — souring of cider — sterilisation — pasteurisation — preserva- 

 tives — ^plant diseases and pests — remedies and preventives, &c. 



The above is not an exhaustive syllabus, but it gives an idea of subjects 

 treated, though not of the order in which they are taken up. The lessons con- 

 sist of conversations and discussions carried on in connection with specimens, 

 experiments, demonstrations, diagrams, and so forth. The whole is treated in 

 an experimental and descriptive manner, and the connection with local indus- 

 tries and phenomena is constantly kept in view. Laboratory work goes on in con- 

 nection with the course, but, except in chemistry and botany, no attempt is 

 made to keep lecture discussions and practical work together. In the physical 

 laboratory the course commences with practical mathematical measurements 

 and verification of mensuration formula, and then proceeds to determinations of 



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