E.— GEOGRAPHY 105 



to the society that defaults. In other words, the spread of mass-produc- 

 tion and commerce needs to be looked at less from the point of view of how 

 as many pins as possible may be produced as quickly and as cheaply as 

 possible, and more from the point of view of the health, and especially 

 the continuing mental and moral health, of the societies concerned. A 

 historical geography of international indebtedness is much needed. 



We need to think of forms of society the world over not merely as 

 examples of halts at various stations along a road on which the industrialist 

 nations have advanced farthest. To do that is to choose out and empha- 

 sise points in our own experience and to make thence a kind of footrule 

 wherewith to measure the world. An Oriental sage, with as little or as 

 much justification, might invent a very different measure for us, and say 

 that patriotism, for example, is a relic of barbarism that has brought 

 calamity to twentieth-century Europe. Human societies are primarily 

 associations between men and the earth in particular areas, and must be 

 studied objectively as such, and also in relation to what they receive from 

 outside. 



n. Hunting Groups ; their Geographical Distribution, 

 Past and Present. 



When men developed the hunting habit, social life probably took a 

 great step forward and was furnished with a new dynamic influence of 

 psychical nature in that the men hunted while the women collected food, 

 reared the children, and began to make the home centre, temporary at 

 first, with its attendant arts of dealing with fire, skins of animals, grass 

 bags, and so on. The group was as yet not fixed in one abode, nor could 

 it look or think far ahead. Its observations led, no doubt, to the emphasis- 

 ing of coincidences rather than to much real argument, its cosmogony 

 was very fragmentary and poor, but it is doubtful whether M. Levy Bruhl 

 has justification for saying that the mental processes of pre-agricultural 

 peoples are entirely different from ours. In the Old Stone Age hunting 

 was the leading scheme of life, and finds of implements allow us to trace 

 at least three main waves of dispersal. The first resulted from their 

 acquiring the power to chip stone, and probably to make fire as well. 

 While some of the early implements are associated with ancient and 

 apparently extinct types like the Neandertal race, the chief series, called the 

 Chelleo-Acheulean, has no skeletons definitely associated with it in Europe, 

 but there is an a priori possibility that this series, or a part of it, is associ- 

 ated with Homo sapiens. The claim that Oldoway man is contemporary 

 with the Chelleo-Acheulean culture of the bed in which it lay is not con- 

 firmed and it is likely that the skeleton is a later burial. Leakey has, 

 however, apparently found H. sapiens with tools of this series elsewhere 

 in East Africa. The Chelleo-Acheulean series is found over much of 

 Africa, save the equatorial forest regions, in south-western Asia and parts 

 of southern India, and over south-western Europe. 



The second great move forward seems to have come with the use of 

 muhiform tools for different purposes, though the recognition by their 

 makers of definite types of tools must not be over-emphasised ; the 

 mounting of stone points and edges in wood, the beginnings of artistic 



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