506 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 
of a self and a non-self world around him. His reactions to the non-self world are 
essentially protopathic, but he is subjected to a ceaseless stream of suggestions of 
social import which demand an epicritic form of mental activity and involve the 
suppression of the phylogenetically older protopathic instinctive reactions. ‘ He 
becomes reasonable, and is no longer controlled by the pleasure principle, but follows 
the reality principle’ (Freud). This pleasure-pain antithesis enunciated by Freud is 
in essence foreshadowed both by Plato and Aristotle. Out of his experience of living 
the child forms an ideal construction or ‘Schema’ of his individuality in relation 
to the non-self world. This Schema includes the external world of matter, space 
and motion, in which his body has place, and a world of social import, based upon 
epicritic data, in which other conscious beings have place. This Schema constitutes 
the ‘Ego.’ There thus arises a conflict between the two forms of reaction, and as 
the strength of an instinctive tendency is in proportion to its antiquity in the race, 
there is small wonder that victory very often goes to the protopathic individualist 
reaction in children. In later life the same victory is often achieved by Regression 
to a less integrated schema of a self of enjoyment still untrammelled by social demands 
and inhibitions. 
The importance of this point of view lies in the fact that the Juvenile delinquent 
and the Difficult child are but overt expressions of something in the repressed 
Unconscious of every one of us, and that it is only by a projection and identification 
of ourselves with the child under consideration that we can understand the springs 
of conduct, however bizarre and inconvenient to the community these may be. 
An analysis of the social circumstances of 200 cases of juvenile delinquency shows 
that 50 per cent. of these were associated with ‘ broken homes.’ Further, the type 
of misdemeanour in the various age-groups throws a useful sidelight upon the 
psychological outlook which underlies them. 
The formation of a schema of self can be represented diagrammatically. Various 
illustrative cases are quoted in the paper. 
Dr. Wa. Moopiz.—Environmental Factors in Maladjustment. 
Dr. A. Macrar.—Psychological Examination as an Aid to Vocational 
Adjustment. 
The aim of vocational guidance is prevention rather than cure. It is true that 
in the case of the maladjusted child the choice of an occupation may be an especially 
critical one, and that, in such a case, a wise choice of work may have some therapeutic 
value. But it is by no means only the ‘ problem’ child who requires assistance in 
this matter. Vocational guidance is a service for the normal just as much as for the 
abnormal. 
Vocational guidance is not a new thing. In the past much excellent work has 
been done by official organisations concerned with juvenile employment, as well as 
by many individual teachers. The psychologist does not despise these efforts, and, 
although he seeks to introduce more exact methods, he regards the results of his 
special examination not as a substitute for, but rather as a valuable supplement to, 
the observations of others. 
The psychological examination includes a number of standardised tests. First, 
a test is used for the estimation of intelligence. Often the vocational misfit is not 
so much a square peg in a round hole as a little peg in a big hole, or a big peg 
attempting to fit into a hole that is far too small. There is little doubt that advice 
based on the results of an intelligence test alone would materially reduce the number 
of unfortunate vocational choices. 
Tests for special capacities have, for the most part, not been so thoroughly 
authenticated as have the tests for general intelligence, but a number of such tests— 
particularly those which measure constructional and mechanical aptitudes—are 
widely used and have proved of distinct value. 
In addition to estimating abilities, the vocational psychologist studies temperament 
and character. His judgments here are based partly on his own observations during 
the testing and during a systematically directed interview with the child, and partly 
on reports of parents and teachers, from whom he also obtains information regarding 
the child’s personal and family history. 
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