EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE. 607 
space. Simple computation shows that the energy of cosmic rays is com- 
parable in amount to the whole energy of matter, being possibly one 
thousandth, and at least one hundred thousandth, of the total energy of 
matter. 
If the cosmic rays originated chiefly before the actual expansion of 
space, their original energy was even bigger, and it has been reduced by 
the expansion in the ratio of the change of the radius of the universe 
during the time of their transmission through free space. We get photo- 
graphs of nebule at a distance of about one hundred million light years ; 
light from these nebule travelled through space during about one 
hundredth of the time of expansion. It does not seem improbable that 
the cosmic rays have travelled around one hundred times longer and were 
really produced by the process of the formation of the stars. This may 
give the solution of the puzzle. The only energy we know which is 
comparable to the energy of the cosmic rays is the matter of the stars. 
Therefore it seems that the cosmic rays must have originated from the stars. 
Now the stars are surrounded by an atmosphere, and an atmosphere 
would altogether prevent any escape of cosmic rays from the inside of a 
star. The explanation seems to be that the cosmic rays went off from 
the stars at a time when the stars had no atmosphere. The stars are born 
without atmosphere; the atmosphere evolved after the escape of the 
cosmic rays. 
We are thus led to the conclusion that the stars were born some ten 
thousand million years ago without atmospheres, and that the cosmic 
rays are outstanding features of the formation of a star. 
How could we explain such a phenomenon as that? Sir James Jeans 
has given strong reasons for admitting the existence of atoms of con- 
siderably higher atomic weight than our actual dead atoms. Cosmogony 
is atomic physics on a large scale—large scale of space and time—why not 
large scale of atomic weight ? Radioactive disintegration is a physical 
fact, cosmic rays are like the rays from radium. Have they not escaped 
from a big scale super-radioactive disintegration, the disintegration of an 
atomic star, the disintegration of an atom of weight comparable to the 
weight of a star ? 
The birth of a star would be an atom of weight somewhat greater than 
the actual weight of the star, and the star would be formed by the super- 
radioactive disintegration of its original atom. It is conceivable that the 
greater part of the products of disintegration would be kept back together 
by the gravitational attraction of such a massive atom, although a con- 
siderable part, say one thousandth, should be able to escape into free space 
at the beginning of the evolution, before the products of disintegration 
are numerous enough to form an atmosphere. Cosmic rays would be 
glimpses of the primeval fireworks of the formation of a star from an atom, 
coming to us after their long journey through free space. 
The frequency of cosmic rays is, of course, very high; nevertheless, 
it may be thought to be too low to be the by-product of such a tremendous 
disintegration of matter. However, it must be realised that the observed 
frequency of the cosmic rays is not the original frequency. The original 
frequency has been reduced in the ratio of the expansion of space, and 
was at least twenty times greater than the observed frequency. 
