Dr. A. Wilinore—The Northern Pennines. 549 
and its steep-sided gorges—to the rolling country of Bowland and the 
Craven Lowlands provides one of the best geographical contrasts in 
the North of England. 
To the geologist there are many interesting problems, in which 
considerable progress has been made in the last quarter of a century, 
but many points in which are still obscure. Some of these are: the 
change in the type of stratification from the Pendleside type and 
Bowland type at the southern end of the region through the Yoredale 
type to the Bernician of the north, and the satisfactory correlation of 
the different facies; the relation of the now famous ‘knoll’ lime- 
stones, best seen immediately south of the Craven Fault, to the Lower 
and Upper Carboniferous Limestones of more normal type, and the 
whole problem of knoll-structure ; the sharp folding immediately in 
front of the faults. Dr. Marr has pointed out the knoll-like structure 
produced in the Keisley Limestone of the Cross Fell inlier, and has 
compared it with the limestone of Draughton Quarry to the south of the 
Craven Fault. There are many folded greyish-white limestones in 
the knolls of Craven which are very much like those of Keisley ; the 
Carboniferous Limestone floor and the different times of its sub- 
mergence, on which new light has been thrown by Professor 
Garwood’s recent work. An interesting paper on this subject was 
presented by Dr. Vaughan last year—his last paper; the relation of 
the pre-Pennines—a part of the old Caledonian system, the rocks 
of which seem to have had cleavage developed in them during the 
early Devonian folding, and which suffered denudation in later 
Devonian and early Carboniferous times; the immense thickening of 
the Millstone Grit to the south, and the precise relation of its rock- 
material to the denudation of the Caledonian Alps; and the age of 
the various foldings and faultings which have determined (in the 
main) the present Pennines. 
All these problems have their geographical aspect. The old 
Paleozoic floor in Ribblesdale and the bit of wild scenery of another 
type—an inlier in the Carboniferous of the Penygent plateau; the 
striking rounded and ovoid form of the Craven knolls; the apparently 
great thickness of grit of the Bowland Fells, and especially of the 
Pendle Range —these and many similar phenomena interest alike the 
geologist and the student of physical geography. 
The age of the faults and folds has been discussed by several 
distinguished workers. There was, of course, the pre-Pennine 
folding in Devonian times; faulting was possibly in progress in 
Carboniferous times as taught by Mr. Tiddeman; great earth- 
movements occurred at the end of the Carboniferous period ; 
Professor Kendall has shown that there was upward movement of 
the Pennines in early Permian times, between the deposition of the 
Lower Brockram and the Upper Brockram ; the great faults, especially 
the Penniné and Craven Faults, and the earlier folding were probably 
Permo-Triassic and possibly in part post-Triassic (the Craven Fault 
is, in the main, later than the Dent Fault, as it cuts the latter 
sharply at the southern end near Kirkby Lonsdale); the great 
continent- and mountain-building movements of mid-Tertiary time 
probably gave (according to Dr. Marr) the final broad form to the 
