CLASSIFICATION OF SPRINGS 523 



notions held by the ancients regarding the origin of springs can 

 be found in Paramelle.^ In addition, their very familiarity has 

 brought about an indifference which has led the average inves- 

 tigator to pass them by. Only springs with unusual character- 

 istics have been thought worth study. Elaborate classifications 

 have been suggested for so-called mineral springs — those whose 

 water is exceptional because of gas or mineral content — but a 

 complete classification of all springs has been attempted only by 

 Keilhack.^ His classes are not mutually exclusive, and his primary 

 division into descending {ahsteigende) springs and ascending 

 {aufsteigende) springs separates, not waters of unlike origin, but 

 only waters that have unlike paths to the surface. A number of 

 authors have made incomplete classifications for the springs of a 

 limited region or for some special reason. The principles involved 

 and the names used have been helpful in preparing this classifica- 

 tion. Such classifications may be found in the works of Gregory, 

 Meinzer, Fuller, and Johnson, cited in this paper, and in those of 

 Hill and Vaughan,^ Fournier,4 and Kilian.^ References to many 

 articles on springs will be found in Meinzer 's bibliography of 

 ground water.^ 



The essential factors in the production of springs are the source 

 of the water and the rock structure which brings it to the surface, 



^ M. I'Abbe Paramelle, Uart de decouvrir les sources, 4th ed. (Paris, 1896), chap, xi, 

 pp. 64 ff. 



^ K. Keilhack, Lehrbuch der Grtmdwasser iind Quellenkunde, Berlin, 191 2. 



3 R. T. Hill and T. W. Vaughan, "Geology of Portions of the Edwards Plateau 

 and Rio Grande Plain Adjacent to Austin and San Antonio, Texas," etc., U.S. Geo- 

 logical Survey, Eighteenth Annual Report, Part II b. 



''M. E. Fournier, "Etude sur les sources, les resurgences et les nappes aquiferes 

 du Jura Franc Comtois," Bull, des Services de la Carte Geol. de la France, etc. 

 Tome XIII (1901-2), No. 89, pp. 1-55, with 31 figs. 



M. E. Fournier, "Etudes sur les projets d'alimentation, le captage, la recherche 

 et la protection des eaux potables," Bull, des Services de la Carte Geol. de la France, 

 etc. Tome XIV (1902-3), No. 94, pp. 1-30, i fig. 



sW. Kilian, "Essai d'une monographie hydrologique des environs de Gareoult 

 (Var)," Bull, de Services de la Carte Geol. de la France, etc. Tome XVI (1904-5), 

 No. Ill, pp. 1-9 with 4 plates. 



*0. E. Meinzer, "Bibliography and Index of the Publications of the United 

 States Geological Survey Relating to Ground Water," U.S. Geological Survey, Water- 

 Supply Paper 427, 191 8. 



