E.— GEOGRAPHY 131 



may be near ' Proto-Aryan,' which almost certainly next developed in 

 this same area of culture origins. 



There is little doubt that the main Aryan-speakers of Europe entered 

 the western continent (following many Alpine migrations who did not 

 speak Aryan) long after the majority of Mediterranean and Alpine tribes 

 (constituting the Amerinds) had migrated to the north-east and so reached 

 America. I have elsewhere suggested that the Basque-speakers belong 

 precisely to this ' horizon ' (if I may use a parallel geological concept) 

 between Hamitic and early Aryan. Hence on ' Crater 4 ' I have suggested 

 that Basque is the sole relic in west Europe of a pre- Aryan tongue which 

 may be equated with some forms of Amerind speech. 



Still later in development, and occupying the upper position of our 

 three concentric language craters, is the Kentum type of Aryan. It 

 spread only a little to the north-east from our hypothetical cradle — where 

 Tocharese was spoken in Chinese Turkestan (near Turfan) as late as 

 A.D. 200. Some Hittites spoke something like a Kentum tongue (as their 

 numerous scripts indicate) in Anatolia about 1300 B.C. Kimmerians 

 from the Ukraine probably carried the Keltic languages westward across 

 Europe, though perhaps their language was more like Welsh than Gaelic. 

 Latin, the typical Kentum speech, seems to have reached Italy (via the 

 Alps) about 1200 B.C. These data build up ' Crater 5 ' in Fig. 15. 



To the cultural geographer the chief value of these representations of 

 growth is that they emphasise the necessity for looking for missing 

 kindred-groups around the margins of a given centre of culture. Secondly 

 they suggest the way in which one group of languages may give rise to 

 another. For instance, the Satem-Aryan group developed near the cradle- 

 land from the Kentum- Aryan. The hypothesis also suggests that many 

 Amerind languages will be found to have risen from a Proto-Altaic. As 

 stated in an earlier paragraph the writer, on the whole, thinks that the key 

 to early Aryan may be found in the Dravidian tongues of Southern India. 



J. Determinism versus Possibilism. 



During the twentieth century the trend of geography has been away 

 from the belief of Ritter in Providential control, and from Environmental 

 control as expounded by Ratzel towards the ' Possibilism ' concept of 

 Vidal de la Blache and his school. The latter geographers picture any 

 particular region as offering almost innumerable possibilities of exploita- 

 tion to Man. Our material evolution, in their opinion, is essentially a 

 matter of our own choice depending on which of the possibilities we 

 choose. I have come to a different conclusion, no doubt primarily 

 owing to my experience in pioneer countries like Australia and Canada, 

 where the possibilities offered by Nature to Man are more meagre than 

 in Britain or U.S.A. Indeed of these three schools, which we may label 

 the Theocratic, the Geocratic and the ' We '-ocratic, I definitely belong 

 to the second. However, I propose to illustrate by the correlative method 

 first in a pioneer country like Canada, and secondly in the old-established 

 culture-complex of Europe, that man is not really a free agent — but 

 definitely a product of his environment. 



