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422 MODIFICATIONS AFFECTING THE ETHNIC SIGNIFICANCE 
anthropoid of the inferior animals has not as yet been affirmed to 
cradle, bandage, or clothe its young; or to mummify or inter its dead. 
With rare exceptions, therefore, the comparative anatomist finds their 
skeletons in a uniform normal condition, and is justified in assigning a 
specific classification to distinctive cranial forms. But it is otherwise 
with the naturalist when he has man as the object of his study. 
Every scheme by which the ethnologist aims at systematising ethnic 
variations of cranial configuration, implies the recognition of national 
diversities in the form and proportions of the human head; but before 
attempting to determine their classification and significance, it is 
important to eliminate the various elements of extrinsic change. These 
then may be stated as follows :— 
I. Undesigned changes of form superinduced in infancy by ban- 
daging or other custom of head-dress ; by the form of pillow or cradle- 
board; and by persistent adherence to any unvarying position in 
suckling and nursing. 
II. Artificial deformation undesignedly resulting from the habitual 
carrying of burdens on the head, or by means of straps or bandages 
pressing on any part of the skull, when such is continued from early 
youth. 
III. Artificial configuration designedly resulting from the application 
of mechanical pressure in infancy. 
IV. Deformation resulting from posthumous compression, or any 
mechanical force brought into operation after death. 
The first of those four classes has hitherto been overlooked, I 
believe ; yet several remarkable instances have come under my own 
observation ; and especially two examples of strikingly unsymmetrical 
heads, which appear to be clearly traceable to the fact that in both 
cases the mother was only able to suckle at one breast, and hence the 
infant skull while still in a soft and pliant condition, was constantly 
subjected to lateral compression only on oneside. Even the persistent 
habit of carrying and laying to sleep on the same side, may permanently 
affect the form of the infant head. 
In relation to the second class, my observations have been directed 
to the heads of Scottish fishwives and porters, and to Indian squaws, 
all of whom carry heavy burdens by means of a strap over the head 
or across the forehead, and to Edinburgh bakers, who carry their 
bread-boards on the crown of the head. But it seems doubtful if 
