THE AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE. 



107 



Liebig. 

 included. 



^wntance o f ^principles- iron, sulphur, phosphorus, 



reproduction of the crop, for without it seed would not 

 germinate 



1 



and liKcon, are el ? 



retain/ or magnesia, consist ui ~- 

 Uiof potassium and magnesium. 



^,tn exception of gelatine, which is produced 

 TWth the except on *» fa are a|g0 the 



by the metamorp osis of a ou en ^^ ^ ^ 



SSR£i SK* -S -ol-ble into the fol- 



lowine elements :— 



,0Tn 6 Oxygen 



Hydrogen 



Carbon 

 Nitrogen ; 



withdepo its in cellalar structure of one or more salts of 

 the following s— 



Calcium or Maarnesmm 

 Sodium or Potassium 

 Phosphorus 



I ron 



Silicon /> 



These elements, moulded into being by the hand o 

 Creative Wisdom, and endowed with the mysterious and 

 ^comprehensible principle of life, become converted into 

 the endless races of animals-immense forests-the deep 

 water of the sea, or the atmosphere that supports and 

 retains the vitality of living beings. 



Now I do not consider that much knowledge will be 

 wined by the Agricultural student of chemistry, by con- 

 futing himself with minute descriptions or details of par- 

 ticular analysis; instead, therefore, of a great array 

 of figures, whicli nobody can understand but chemists them- 

 selves, I shall content myself by making some simple obser- 

 vations separately upon each of the constituents of plants. 



Of the Saccharine Groups : Sugar, Starch, Gum. — 

 There are two varieties of sugar, one derived from the 

 cane, called cane sugar; the other produced by the 

 transposition of the elements of starch in ripening fruits, 

 called grape sugar. It is the latter of these, as an ele- 

 ment of food and a constituent of plants, which I shall 



consider here. 



If you cut an unripe Apple or raw Potato, and rub the 

 cut surface upon a grater, a solution of very fine flour of 

 pure starch will be obtained. In the unripe Grape, in 

 Turnips, Mangold Wurtzel, the grain of Wheat, Barley, 

 or Oats, Beans, Peas, &c, it is very abundant. In the 

 process of ripening fruir, which we well know requires 

 heat, this starch is converted into sugar by a simple trans- 

 position of elements, which a reference to the composi- 

 tion of the substances will show [vide table). This change 

 also takes place in the process of malting, the success of 

 trhich operation depends upon the existence of the principle 

 of life in the seed. Now this vital principle, of the na- 

 ture of which we know nothing, and very probably never 

 sh%U, is, from the commencement to the end of life, con- 

 stantly effecting the most profound chemical changes in 

 the living body. In the instance before us, chemical 

 action is induced to convert the starch into food for the 

 embryo plant. During the change, a reference to the 

 table will show that carbonic acid is constantly set free. 

 Now this carbonic acid nourishes the embryo plant, pre- 

 cisely in the same way as the carbonic acid, which results 

 from the decomposition of humus, nourishes it in a future 

 state of its existence. But the maltster wants all the 

 sugar he can get in his malt. When, therefore, the ex- 



of gum arabic have been found sufficient to support an 

 adult man or woman tor twenty-four hours. This, how- 

 ever, could not continue long, as the want of azotised food 

 would prove fatal to the experimenter. The same remark 

 applies to sugar and starch ; they are highly nutritious as 

 supporters of respiration, but alone are incapable of sup- 

 porting animal life. Woody fibre, which is very nearly 

 the same iu chemical composition in all plants ; in the 

 Turnip-top, or the ship's mast; is represented by the Sac- 

 charine group*. It is, iu fact, very easily converted into 

 sugar ; 100 parts of linen rags will yield 114 of sugar, 

 when treated with sulphuric acid. 



As I have not attempted a chemical dissertation upon 

 the different parts of the plant, I have said nothing about 

 the sap. I may observe, however, that the ascending sap 

 is nearly similar in all plants, but that important changes 

 take place during its circulation in the leaves. Much in- 

 teresting and valuable information on this point, written 

 with peculiar clearness, may be found in Professor Hens- 

 low's Letters to the Farmers of Suffolk, or Dr. Carpenter's 

 Popular Cyclopaedia, vol. Vegetable Physiology and Botany 

 — a very excellent and cheap publication. — C. R. Bree^ 

 Stowmarket. 



(To be continued.) 



Oxygen. 



1 

 U 



or tne embryo by heat. If he did not do this at the 

 proper time, his malt would be spoiled, for the growing 

 plant requires food, and quickly appropriates the sugar to 

 8 own use. As an instance of the transposition of che- 

 mical elements, let us pursue this digression a little further; 



ohiY- malt COmeS into the hands of the brewer, his 

 fi P i! C j." V* n Bn alco «olic solution, called beer. He 



whirl \h I* aU lhe su ^ ar in the maIt b y boiling, after 

 hoi ; JeCt is sim P ,v to convert the sugar into alco- 



aliiini 1 equ i? alent8 the following is the composition of 

 alcohol ana Grape sugar :— 



Alcohol Carbon. Hvdr ^ en - 



b r gar : ; »■ 



her/ it 'i! 81 calculatio,ls » wh ich would he out of place 

 rogsr i Cat i P roved tl *at the results of the change in the 

 acid be 1 ' 8 ho1, ca «"bonic acid, and water; the carbonic 

 and tl e" 5 §iVen °^ during the change or fermentation, 

 N water serving as a solvent for the alcohol. 



Yeastfa , fermentation ii produced by the action of life. 

 of a a plant of a low organisation, and is constituted 



in a i in " of sma11 spherical cells united together 

 *hich h* tl °' 1 °^ tnese ce ^ s contains many germs, 

 the Da UV i C ° nStantl y" re P eated aeath s and bursting of 

 thernsel °t become free » and form full-grown cells 

 taroueho^' i th " 18 manner the yeast-plant rapidly grows 

 change f ? ask ° f sweet " wort > and produces the 



ctrboni *J Sar inf ° alconol » with the constant escape of 



in 5 of the"lr™ m Sf 8UrfaCC ' Which U CHlle , d " the W ° rk " 

 in* j n . cer * A n e importance, then, of sugar exist- 



elemenu !' clther a8 a disti »ct compound, or by its 



Starrh ln f ° rra ° f starch » wiU be apparent- 

 connect ° r - P rinci P les similar to it, exists in all plants 

 the food f* • A 5 nculture - ^ is an essential ingredient in 

 8u PPort th anifnal8 ' because it is absolutely necessary to 

 j *a vah, kf fan, ' tlons ot ' respiration and animal heat. It 

 Mood A l ; nncl P let0 the farmer, for it is necessary 

 l0 Produce fat ; and it is equally essential to the 



Home Correspondence. 



Superphosphate of Lime. — The following is the best 

 process for forming superphosphate of lime and other 

 salts of phosphoric acid. I give the process that I used 

 before I possessed appropriate machinery for mixing the 

 acid with the bones. By means of this machinery I am 

 capable of greatly reducing the quantity of water which is 

 otherwise necessary to effect the complete decomposition 

 of the phosphate of lime. Calcined bones are to be 

 reduced by grinding to a very fine powder, and placed in 

 an iron pan with an equal weight of water (a cast-iron 

 trough, such as are sold for holding water for cattle will 

 do) ; a man with a spade must mix the bone with the 

 water until every portion is wet : while the man is stirring 

 an assistant empties at once into the pan sulphuric acid, 

 60 parts by weight to every 100 parts of bone; the acid 

 is poured in at once, and not in a thin stream, as com- 

 monly recommended; the stirring is continued for about 

 three minutes and the material is then thrown out. With 

 four common farm-labourers and two pans, I have mixed 

 two tons in one day, the larger the heap that is made the 

 more perfect the decomposition, as the heap remains in- 

 tensely hot for a long time. It is necessary to spread the 

 superphosphate out to the air for a few days, that it may 

 become dry. The great mechanical difficulty of reduciug 

 unburnt bones to a very fine powder renders the form- 

 ation of superphosphate of lime from them very difficult, 

 but common bone-dust in a pure state (that which is 

 sold contains about one-third of lime) may be decom- 

 posed by boiling it in a leaden pan with half its weight of 

 sulphuric acid and twice its weight of water, which may 

 afterwards be dried up with sawdust or clay-ashes. — 



J. 13. Lawes. 



In what do the Fertilising Qualities of Bones consist ? 



There seems still to be some doubt in the minds of some 



of vour readers whether the phospate of lime, or the gela- 

 tine, is the fertilising substance in the bone ? I would 

 suggest the following experiment, which I have tried my- 

 self and which has satisfied me that the animal matter in 

 the bone merely acts by yielding, by slow decomposition, 

 phosphate of lime in a state capable of being assimilated 

 by plants ; and to the phosphate of lime being in a similar 

 state in guano, and not to the ammonia contained in it, 

 may be attributed the powerful effects of this valuable 

 manure. To every 100 parts of large bones add 400 parts 

 of water and 100 parts of muriatic acid, let it stand for 

 four or five days, and then drain off the liquid, and add 

 the same quantity of fresh water and acid four times ; by 

 this means the whole of the phosphate of lime will be 

 dissolved in the liquid, and the bones will retain their 

 original form ; they must be repeatedly washed until the 

 water ceases to taste acid, then dry them in an oven, and 

 rub them to powder. Evaporate the whole of the liquid 

 in which the mineral matter of the bone was dis- 

 solved until nothing but a dry paste remains ; heat this 

 to redness, rub it to a fine powder, and convert it into 

 superphosphate of lime in the manner already described. 

 Let two equal quantities of ground be sown with Turnips, 

 strain the seed and one of these two manures together, 

 and the result will satisfy the most sceptical. I have 

 lately seen a large quantity of Swedes growing upon the 

 light sands of Norfolk, in which four bushels of my super- 

 phosphate of lime per acre were used, and the crops were 

 excellent,— the superphosphate was formed from calcined 

 bones which did not contain one-half per cent, of carbon. 



— J. B. Lawes. 



A Word in Favour of the Rooks.— Having observed 

 in the 4th Number of the Agricultural Gazette that a 

 meeting had been held in the town of Dumfries, Scotland, 

 for the partial destruction of the rooks In that district, we 

 beg leave to offer a few remarks in their favour. These 

 birds certainly eat grain and Potatoes, but it is much to 

 be questioned whether, when following the sower in the 

 field, they are not more intent upon the larvae of numerous 

 insects, which the operation of ploughing and harrowing 

 brings to the surface, than upon th e grain which is scat- 



* Starch, sugar of milk, woody fibre, cane-sugar, and grape- 

 sugar, all contain the same quantity of carbon, muted witn af- 

 ferent quantities of oxygen and hydrogen, iu the proportions to 

 form water.— Turner's Element*, p. 921. 



t red amongst them. The crops of these birds, at the 

 period under consideration, will be found to be more 

 abundantly stored with worms and various insects, both 

 in their larva and perfect state, than with grain ; and 

 what they do eat would not be the tenth of what would be 

 consumed by the insects which they destroy. We find 

 the following in behalf of the rooks in the "American 

 Farmer." " Every crow requires at least one pound of 

 food a week, and nine tenths of their food consists of 

 worms and insects ; 100 crows, then, in one season, de- 

 stroy 4,780 lbs. of worms and insects." From this fact 



m 



some idea may be formed of the benefit of this much per- 

 secuted bird. Were it not for these useful birds our fields 

 would goon swarm with the larva? of insects, which would, 

 if left to have their own way, let neither man, bird, or 

 beast reap the fruits of the earth. If we look to those 

 countries where these useful birds are persecuted, we 

 shall find that the formidable cockchafer (Melolontha 

 vulgaris) and other destructive insects, destroy nearly the 

 whole of our field and orchard crops ; while in those places 

 where these useful birds are allowed to remain unmolested, 

 the ravages of these destructive insects are unknown. 

 Natural instinct seems to direct the rook to this species of 

 food, while man is unconscious of the circumstance. Thus 

 we often see flocks of these birds busily employed in grass- 

 land and meadows, picking up food which is not visible 

 on the surface. From observation we can assert that 

 their employment in such cases is in perforating the sur- 

 face-sward with their bills to search for the larvae of dif- 

 ferent insects, which are, at the same time, actively de- 

 vouring the roots of the grass. Even while engaged in 

 this important service, the husbandman in nine cases out 

 of ten drives them away. In this district the rooks mi- 

 prate as soon as the operation of sowing is finished, tak- 

 ing with them their young, spending the most of the sum- 

 mer on large heaths and moors but scantily supplied with 

 food. They again return to us towards autumn to destroy 

 the perfect insects, many of which begin at this time to 

 deposit their eggs. At this period rooks do infinite good, 

 as for each insect they destroy they are the means of de- 

 stroying many. It has been observed that the sole em- 

 ployment of the rooks for three months in spring is to 

 search for this kind of food, and the havoc a numerous 

 flock makes amongst these destructive insects must be 

 very great. — J. Mc L., Hillsborough. 



Preservation of Root Crops. — The usual method of 

 storing Swedes, either by earthing up in the field or cover- 

 ing in pits, is liable to objections. Having preserved 

 Carrots by cutting off the upper part as well as the green 

 top, and letting them remain earthed up in the ground 

 where they grew, I have this season been induced to try 

 the same method upon a small patch of Swedes. If 

 covered in the field they sprout, and otherwise lose much 

 of their nutritive properties ; if put into pits the fermen- 

 tation which takes place is still more injurious in this way. 

 By letting them remain in the ground, preventing germi- 

 nation and covering the top with mould, I believe we shall 

 best succeed in preserving their enriching properties unin- 

 jured. The process of cutting off the top may be done 

 with a hoe, but it requires a deep cut beyond the germi- 

 nating circle, and all that is cut off should be taken to the 

 sheep-fold, so as not to waste a leaf. The earthing up 

 is a very easy process— supposing the Turnips drilled, as 

 the double mould board plough drawn between the rows 



is sufficient. — S. C. 



Another New Manure. — I send you a specimen of the 



dung of Bats, received from Jamaica. It is found in con- 

 siderable quantity in the Caves near Dry Harbour, and in 

 the Guy's Hill District, in the parish of St. Ann, in that 

 island. The following analysis is by F. J. Fleming, Esq., 

 a Member of the St. Ann's Agricultural Society :— 



500 Grains of the Mutter appear to be composed of 



Water of Absorption 



Uncombined I'hosphoric Acid .... 



Oxide of Iron 



Phosphate of Lime 



Carbonate of Lime ....«• 



Animal and Vegetable Matter, giving out a 



foetid gas by combustion .... 



Matter indestructible by Heat .... 





116 



i 



3 



181 

 16 



99 

 81 



Grains 500 



This substance, which is of a dark or chocolate colour, 

 is expected to prove a highly valuable manure ; it had been 

 tried bv covering it with earth in the cane-hole ; but a 

 writer in the Jamaica Times suggests that it should be 

 used broadcast, being previously mixed with wood-ashes 

 or powdered charcoal. — T. E. ... 



Bones.— The supply of Bones for crushing is not now 

 so plentiful as formerly. There are large quantities of 

 the bones of the small Whales, which are killed in hun- 

 dreds at a time, lying on the sea-beaches of Orkney, 

 Shetland, and the Faroe islands, and which probably 

 may be had for the trouble of collecting. It may be well 

 for those concerned in crushing bones for manure to look 

 to these quarters ; and also to induce Whale fishers, who 

 go to the Greenland seas, to save as great an amount of 

 the skeletons as possible, to be brought home ; or to 

 have them towed on shore, to be sent for afterwards. 

 The Seal fishery might also supply a very large store.— G. 



Sleeping Seeds. — It may not be uninteresting to know 

 that the practice of steeping seeds, recently brought under 

 the notice of the Highland Society by Mr. Campbell, of 

 Dundee, was tried 150 years ago, as appears from the sub- 

 joined extract from the M Farmers' Magazine " for Decem- 

 ber, 1S10. The expeiiment there mentioned seems to 

 have been even more successful than those of Mr. Camp- 

 bell. To him, however, the farmer's thanks are due for 

 reopening the subject, at a time when the attention of 

 eminent scientific men is so much directed to making their 

 discoveries available for the purposes of Agriculture :—» 

 « Charles Miller, son of the celebrated botanist, published 



