m*.] 



THE AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE. 



415 



an 



fall* 



-T^~^~when the ploughing is suspended by heavy 

 U of rkin or snow. A convenient spot near to the 

 " nrp pa te of the field is selected for the site of the 



trance gate 01 tne neia is seiecieu iui w« one wi m»« 

 ! n «„hi'l a few cart-loads of the roughest of the dung are 



proved that it has been used in some countries for the 1 soda, 780 lbs. phosphate ot lime, 195 ibi. gypbum, J4 lbs. 

 last 150 years. In its natural state, clay is merely used common salt, &c, all which substances will supply many 

 for improving sandy, marshy, peaty and chalky soils ; 



a tew cart-ioaus or me ruuguwiui mc uuug oi t ucuauac, aimyugu uioucra cssennai 10 v 



^/carried out, and the whole of the intended site rilled ment are thus added, the main object is 



>hit in order to prevent the cart-wheels from sinking texture. In a roasted state, however, c 





into the soft land. The heaps, for the convenience 

 f after turning, are seldom more than five or six feet 



hurli aad s0 wide as t0 alloW tlie horses and 

 carts to turn, when unloading, on the top. The 



fidds being, generally speaking, rather large, and 



ften of irregular surface, two heaps are commonly made 



°f the dung to be applied, so situated as to economise, 



njuch as° possible, the after cartage. When taken out 



*n winter, the horses and carts are allowed to go up and 



unload upon the heap, one end being left low for that 



pose, an( j afterwards made up uniform with the rest; 

 but the dung taken out to the fields during the spring, 

 or shortly before being required for application to the 

 land is never carted or trodden upon. In this case the 

 carts' are backed up to the heap, and the dung thrown 

 loosely together with a grape or fork. The heap not 

 being consolidated by unloading upon it, the process of 

 fermentation commences immediately after its formation. 

 Double-horse turn-up, or as we call them coup-carts, are 

 invariably used in conveying dung from the yards to the 

 fields. All the yards, sheds, and houses are cleaned out 

 generally about the middle or end of March, for the dung 

 to be that year applied to Beans, Potatoes, and Turnips ; 

 what is collected from that period till June being re- 

 terved for the land (if any) to be summer-fallowed. 

 The dung carted out in winter is, in most cases, com- 

 pletely turned over about three or four weeks before 

 being applied to the land, in order to mix all the differ- 

 ent parts minutely together, and to bring the entire mass 

 into the requisite degree of decomposition ; the heaps 

 intended for Beaus, Potatoes, Swedish Turnips, &c., 

 being turned over in the order in which they are wanted 

 for application. This operation is usually done by con- 

 tract. In some parts of the county women are preferred 

 to men for turning dung, the former being supposed to 

 take smaller grapefuls, and mix the parts more intimately 

 together, than the latter. The workmen invariably begin 

 at that end of the dunghill on the lowest ground, and 

 after marking off a strake or division, about one and a 

 half or two yards wide, according to the depth, they 

 turn it over into a mud heap, laying that which was 

 originally uppermost underneath. The use of the dung- 

 spade in cutting the dung perpendicularly greatly facili- 

 tates its lifting with the grapes. When arrived at the 

 bottom of each division a portion of the earth is thrown 

 over the top of the newly-turned dung. Another divi- 

 sion of the heap is then marked off and turned in a 

 similar manner, and so on until the whole is completed. 

 Should the dung be very dry and but slowly decom- 

 posing, it is customary to saturate it perfectly with 

 water, in the absence of rain, while turning it over, which 

 considerably accelerates the fermentative process. Lat- 

 terly a few farmers, while turning their manure heaps, 

 have sprinkled them over with a little gypsum, in order 

 to fix the ammonia evolved during the process of fer- 

 mentation. Others are beginning to use diluted sul- 

 phuric acid for the same purpose. 



After the whole has been turned, the sides and top are 

 covered with earth for the purpose of protecting the 

 dung from the effects of the sun and wind, and to absorb 

 the volatile gases disengaged in the process of fermenta- 

 tion. Dung carted out during the spring and intended 

 for Potatoes, is seldom turned over in the field, it being 

 considered that this crop does not require the manure to 

 be brought to the same degree of decomposition as for 

 Turnips or other crops having small seeds. The dung 

 intended for application to the fallows is usually turned 

 over in the yard in which it has been colbcted a short 

 time before being required for use. If very dry, as is 

 generally the case at that period of the year, water is 

 copiously added. Wet weather is always preferred, 

 especially m summer, for performing this operation.— T. 



because, although matters essential to vegetable nourish- 

 to improve their 



clay is used on all 

 sorts of soils, as it will not only improve most of them 

 mechanically, but all in a chemical point of view. We 

 shall speak first of the manuring with clay or loam in 

 their natural state. 



Both will decompose, but very slightly, the coal of 

 humus or the vegetable matter in the soil, as they do not 

 contain any powerful bases (as soda, lime, potash) either 

 free or combined with carbonic acid. If, on the other hand, 

 the bases which are contained in the clay or loam com- 

 bined into silicates by silica, are to become useful to the 

 plants, the soilmust contain a substance which will decom- 

 pose the latter. Such ishumicacid, which combineswiththe 

 lime, magnesia, soda, and potash of the silicates into salts, 

 which being soluble in water, will pass into the plants. 

 Humic acid is the more important as it has to dissolve 

 such phosphates as may be contained in the clay, and to 

 convey them to the plants ; because, although the car- 

 bonic acid, which comes with the rain water into the soil, 

 or which is formed by the humus, acts similarly to humic 

 acid, yet its action is very slight. 



The circumstance, that clay and loam always contain 

 only small quantities of gypsum, common salt,and silicates 

 of lime, magnesia, potash, and soda, as well as phosphates, 

 compel the use of them in large quantities, if they are in- 

 tended to improve the soil chemically, and to nourish 

 plants. In sandy and marshy soils this is the more 

 necessary, as they are also required to improve them 

 physically. 



I have analysed several sorts of loam which are em- 

 ployed with great effect for the improvement of sandy 

 soils, and subjoin two such cases, as I shall thus be better 

 able to explain their action ; and they may serve as a 

 guidance to those who may wish to manure their soils 

 with loam. 



a. 100,000 parts of a loam employed for the improve- 

 ment of a sandy soil, rich in humus, contain : — 

 95,104 parts silica and quartz sand 



alumina, partly combined with silica 



oxide of iron ditto 



oxide of manganese 



lime combined with silica 



magnesia ditto 



potash ditto 



soda ditto 



phosphate of lime 

 gypsum 

 common salt 



crops with the necessary nourishment. 



Clay always contains not only more alumina (at times 

 20 per ct.), but generally more gypsum, common salt, pot- 

 ash, soda, lime, and magnesia, on which account such large 

 quantities of it as of ioam, are not required. This, how- 

 ever, can only be decided with accuracy, by subjecting it 

 to chemical analysis, as this is the only means to ascer- 

 tain the amount of the manuring substances, which are 

 thereby conveyed to the soil. It is not necessary to 

 state in detail that clay and loam will never improve the 

 soil as clayey marl does, and that they are only to be 

 used when the latter is not at hand. 



2,520 



U 



1,460 



f$ 



0,048 



>» 



0,336 



M 



0,125 



if 



0,072 



tf 



0,180 



M 



0,072 



V 



0,048 



>» 



0,035 



ft 



ON MINERAL AND INORGANIC MANURES. 



No. **. MM 



By Professor Charles Sprengel. 



t fij (Continued from page 3Q4.) 



. Liay and Loam. — Clay, as we know, is a very fine 

 grained earth, which consists of a chemical compound of 

 anT lna and silica, with a great quantity of free silica 

 » alumina, more or less oxide of iron and manganese, 



■orts f i lme ' potash ' soda » magnesia, and iron. Most 

 turn 3 ° cor >tain, moreover, a small quantity of gyp- 



iron' ° 0m ! non 8alt > Phosphate of alumina, phosphate of 

 that ° t r h pho ^ hate ©f lime. Notwithstanding, therefore, 

 alumina 6 C j co mponent parts of clay are silica, 



manures' ° Xide .° f iron ' which have liU,e value aS 



titv still ^ °! 0St 8oils conta in them in sufficient quan- 



tubitanc a v. S ° contains a small proportion of those 

 ulan r« ^j , lch are essential for the nourishment of 



Loam" Iff Wantin S in several sorts of 80iL 

 trains n rs fr °m clay only in the coarseness of its 



fcUnir M8t,n S m °stly of quartz, but at times also of 

 more or l ' 8lllcatw of Potash,lime, &c. which are mixed 

 fcustiiotK i WUh the fine ar S illac eous parts. These 

 °* both l unn °ticed, if a correct idea of the action 



th « soil II , loam is to be for med. Both improve 

 they QQ L a T* mechanically, but also chemically, as 



Clay ., a l n " ub8t * nce " **iich really nourish plants, 

 •fctei. 11 havelon S been used in their natural 

 of field* ■. ?" roaated ' m the manuring and improving 

 with h alr -bou*h immUiu.. IuL *u ™ «-- 



100,000 parts. 



Of this loam not less than 200,000 lbs. are to be pot on 

 one acre, to produce a good effect ; the soil will then re- 

 ceive 5000 lbs. alumina, partly as clay, and partly in a 

 free state, which will not only increase the powers of the 

 soil for retaining water, but will in some degree decom- 

 pose the humus ; it will also receive 670 lbs. lime, which 

 will become gradually available for plants, as the humic 

 acid of the soil separates it from the silica ; 250 lbs. mag- 

 nesia, which will also reach the plants by means of the 

 humic acid, and suffice for many crops ; 150 lbs. potash, 

 and 360 lbs. soda, which, like the lime and magnesia, 

 will be separated from the silica ; 150 lbs. phosphate of 

 lime, which is soluble in carbonic and humic acid ; and 

 96 lbs. gypsum, and 70 lbs. common salt, which the 

 rain water will convey to the plants. The quantity of 

 phosphates of lime contained in ioam may be somewhat 

 greater, but as one crop does not require of this sub- 

 stance, as has been stated above, more than 5 lbs. or Gibs. ; 

 the quantity of it present will suffice for 30 crops ; the 

 same will be the case with gypsum and common salt. 

 But it is not to be forgotten that part of the mineral 

 substances conveyed to the plants reverts again to the 

 soil as manure ; while some portions may be altogether 

 lost, as they are dissolved and carried away by the 

 atmospheric water. If instead of 200,000 lbs., 300,000 lbs. 

 of loam are conveyed on one acre of land, one-third more 

 of all these mineral substances will reach the soil, and the 

 effect will be then the greater ; but it is the province of 

 agricultural calculation to see whether the increased 

 expense will be commensurate with the result to be 

 obtained. If the texture of dry sandy soil be improved 

 by loam, as it certainly will if the above quantity be used, 

 it is also to be considered that the dung will afterwards 

 be of more avail to the crops, as it will be less apt to 

 volatilise, and to be extracted by the rain. 



100,000 parts of a loam which was used for the im- 

 proving of a sandy soil, which contained 2£ per cent, of 

 humic acid, and was not entirely deficient in lime, mag- 

 nesia, potash, soda, gypsum, &c, was composed of 

 95,365 parts silica and quartz sand 



alumina mostly combined with silica , 



oxide of iron 

 oxide of manganese 

 lime combined with silica 

 magnesia ditto 



potash ditto 



soda ditto 



phosphate of lime 

 gypsum 

 common salt 



1,600 



ft 



2,140 



ft 



0,200 



ft 



0,135 



tf 



0,040 



ft 



0.087 



ft 



0,090 



1* 



0,260 



ft 



0,065 



f> 



0,018 



ff 



ON BONES AS MANURE. 

 Tun chief ingredients of which the bones of animate 

 consist are gelatine (glue), and the phosphates of lime 

 and magnesia. They contain about 34 parts of gelatine, 

 and 57 parts of the phosphates of lime and magnesia ; 

 and, besides this, a small per centage of carbonate of 

 lime (chalk), and fluoride of calcium (Derbyshire spar). 

 The only ingredients of any importance to agriculturists 

 are those which form the chief bulk of bones, viz., gela- 

 tine and the phosphates. Bones are employed in two> 

 forms, either unboiled or boiled. Let us consider what 

 takes place when bones are boiled in water. The gela- 

 tine dissolves, and the earthy matter of the bones re- 

 mains, retaining the form of unboiled bones. The ques- 

 tion now is, What part does the gelatine play in the 

 nutrition of plants t It has been proved that gelatine, 

 as such, cannot be taken up by the roots of plants, and 

 it is only by its conversion into carbonate of ammonia 

 that it is able to benefit a crop. Gelatine contains all 

 the ingredients necessary for this conversion, which,, 

 however, takes place but slowly. Carbonate of ammonia 

 is taken up readily by the plant, and is expended in the 

 formation of substances containing nitrogen. The chief 

 objection to this salt is its volatility ; it therefore becomes- 

 a question of practical importance to the farmer, whether 

 it be not more profitable to make use of boiled bones, if 

 they can be got cheaper, and to supply a safer and 

 cheaper substitute for the gelatine, viz., a substance 

 capable of yielding nitrogen to plants without much loss- 

 It can be proved that a great loss takes place in unboiled 

 bones in the soil during autumn and winter, by the 

 volatile nature of carbonate of ammonia. Of the im- 

 portance and use of boiled bones, those only will doubt 

 who know nothing of the uses of phosphates in the eco- 

 nomy of vegetable life, and who believe the effect of 

 bones to be solely owing to their animal matter. The 

 importance of phosphate of lime will be manifest, when 

 we are informed by chemists that the ashes of the seed* 

 of Wheat contain 44 ±, those of Barley 32, and of Peas 

 17j per cent, of it. How could the bones of children 

 and animals be formed, were they not contained in their 

 food, which has been abstracted from the soil? We 

 know that bones, by boiling, are only deprived of their 

 gelatine ; and they consist, after boiling, almost wholly 

 of phosphate of lime. The price of boiled bones is less 

 than half that of unboiled ; and since most people will 

 allow that the gelatine may be substituted, why not 

 make use of a substance fitted for immediate use by the 

 plant? Such substances are sulphate of ammonia, 

 muriate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, and guano. Eight 

 pounds of sulphate of ammonia to every cwt. of boiled 

 bones would amply compensate for all the nitrogen 

 which the same quantity of unboiled bones could yield, 

 provided all its nitrogen were imbibed by the plant,— a 

 case which never occurs. It may be urged, and truly, 

 that unboiled bones are of longer duration than boiled 

 bones. This is partially true, owing to the protective 

 influence of the gelatine ; but they have the disadvan- 

 tage that, unless finely ground, they do not exercise 

 much influence upon the plants in the first year, whilst 

 boiled bones benefit the crops immediately. W hen the 

 land is very deficient in phosphates, it will be very 

 materially cheaper to the farmer to apply boiled bones, 

 because with every cwt. of these he supplies one-third 

 more phosphates at half the expense. The objection 

 against the shorter duration of boiled bones is easily 

 obviated by the application of a quantity rather more 

 than sufficient for the supply of a rotation of crops, 

 with phosphates, and in the manner recommended by 

 Professor Liebig, viz., by dissolving them in acid. For 

 this purpose, 1 cwt. of boiled bones will more than 

 suffice for the supply of a statute acre of land, with the 

 necessary quantity of phosphates required by the ordi- 

 nary rotation of five crops. It is better to add more 

 than a sufficiency, as by these means the land is 

 gradually improved without unnecessary outlay of money. 

 In order to effect the solution, proceed as follows : — 

 1 cwt. of the ground boiled bones are to be placed in a 

 wooden tub, and 3 cwt. of water to be poured upon 

 them ; 70 lbs. weight of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol of 

 commerce) are now to be poured into the tub, and the 

 mixture to be well and frequently stirred. Effervescence 

 takes place, owing to the decomposition of the carbonate 

 of lime, contained in small quantity in the bones, ana 

 the expulsion of carbonic acid, for which reason tne 

 tub must only be two-thirds filled In this P™ e " ^ 

 following decomposition takes place: — i ne " L nes 

 acid, combining with the lime and *agnes.a o * 

 forms sulphate of lime and sulphate of »"£*£' .fagoln- 

 and Epsom salts), and renders the ^^T^e^ is 



gh some believe that the manuring acre, we therefore convey to the 



100,000 parts. 



By the application of 300,000 lbs. 



-a nro ^orofAro nnnCPT tO the SOll 



of this loam per 

 4800 lbs. alumina, 



ble, which, together with the -Ipj^e « ^ ^ 

 dissolved in the water. Allow the q- , , 



nrpr niirht-. and ml it OPOn WC '<" » w 5 '__ . S 



r &* clay is a discovery of recent date, it can be 405 lbs. lime, 120 lbs. magnesia, 26 lbs. potash, 270 lbs. 



over night, and mix it arx> 



charcoal, sawdust, and soil, «^ 1 •" ' he 



sorbed, and the whole forms a stiff mass. 



liquor is 

 Take it 



ab- 

 out 



