



I 



S 







J 1 * of 6 old castles, the doors of old churches, the roof of 

 JSfrminster Hall, the submarine forest at Hastings, and 



5 = S5u5wirintroduced«some two or three ages ago!" 

 ^*be most ancient Oak timber in the country, .the 



beam 



^foakTogs taken from"the~mosses in Scotland are all of 

 £f t ioecit s. I have myself seen very large Oaks of the 

 sessiliflora in the Forest of Dean and in natural Oak woods 

 m the banks of the Derwent. , 



\s a further specimen of the quality of the information 

 * eTe d to the public in this book of the Society for the 

 diffusion of Useful Knowledge, the following may be 

 taken — ' " Of the various European Oaks, the Q. pedun- 

 rnWis most esteemed on the Continent ; it is a magni- 

 ficent tree, considerably taller than our native Oak. In 

 the forests of Fontainebleau and Compeigne there are at 

 this time many trees of this species, the trunks of which 

 measure from 30 to 36 feet in circumference at the base, 

 and rise to the height of 40 feet without a single branch. 

 Beautiful as this species is, it produces timber very 

 inferior to our Quercus robur— (this may arise from 

 climate local situation, and growing close together). It 

 is probable that this species, which is indifferently desig- 

 nated by the French Botanists as Q. robur andQ. sessili- 

 flora is a species entirely different from our real English 

 Oak' for the wood of the Q. pedunculata is described by 

 those writers as harder and more compact than that of 

 the Q. robur or sessiliflora." «,.*.» 



The confusion and contradiction observable in the fore- 

 going remarks is most extraordinary. The Q. pedunculata 

 of the French is the same as the Q. pedunculata of the 

 English ; and their Q. sessiliflora is also the same species 

 as ours :'so that Q. pedunculata is in one place cried up by 

 this writer as the true "heart of Oak" under the name of Q. 

 robur; and then, under its other name of Q. pedunculata, 

 it is supposed to be something else, and of bad quality. 

 As to the concluding part of the sentence, it is wholly un- 

 intelligible. Such are the errors of writers who, having 

 no practical or systematical knowledge of the subject on 

 which they write, are nevertheless allowed to lead people 

 wrong most sericnisly, not only in matters of opinion, but 

 in practice. — W. Billington. [The above is the substance 

 of a communication, which, in its original state, was much 

 too long for our columns.] 



THE AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE. 



451 



ON FEEDING CATTLE IN HOUSES OR IN 



OPEN SHEDS. 



{Continued from page 434.) 



The functions fulfilled by the various ingredients of 

 the food of the domestic animals, will have been seen 

 from the foregoing imperfect sketch : — The importance 

 of supplying matters rich in nitrogen is apparent, for 

 without it no increase of muscular fibre can take place. 

 Highly carbonised .ingredients will, however, be seen to 

 be no less essential, otherwise respiration will take place 

 at the expense of the transformation of existing tissues, 

 and in a proportionate degree with loss of condition in 

 the animal. 



The quantity of food required by carnivorous, when 

 compared with that used by graminivorous animals, is 

 small The food of the former class' is highly nutritive 

 when compared with that of the latter, in addition to 

 which, the skin of carnivorous animals is destitute of 

 perspiratory pores, so that, in them, no consumption of 

 food is necessary to supply waste from perspiration. Gra- 

 minivorous animals, especially the ruminantia, continue 

 eating throughout the day with little intermission, as they 

 possess, in a greater degree, the power of converting into 

 organised tissues the excess of food which they consume 

 beyond what is required for supplying the waste which is 

 constantly going forward. They therefore become 

 plump and acquire flesh, while the carnivorous animal 

 continues spare, its flesh being tough and sinewy. The 

 accumulation of flesh in the latter, indeed, would be fatal 

 to their existence, as rendering them incapable of pursu- 

 ing their prey. 



The conditions under which flesh and fat can be 

 accumulated will now be understood. The extent to 

 which this property is developed in many of the breeds 

 of cattle in this country is truly astonishing. In the case 

 of the stall-fed animal, deprived of ail means of exercise, 

 and preserved in an atmosphere not subject to vicissi- 

 tudes of temperature, the waste of the system is incon- 

 siderable, as compared with what it would be in the event 

 of exercise being taken ; and the consumption of nitro- 

 genised food is accordingly greater than is required to 

 supply the waste going forward, so that the excess here 

 must be devoted to the production of an increase of mus- 

 cular fibre or flesh. But the preservation of a high tem- 

 perature and the want of exercise have also been seen to 

 in t e i qui T alent t0 a diminished supply of oxygen, so that, 

 n the circumstances under consideration, a portion of 



? car oon which would otherwise be consumed in re- 



ofwr 10 ?' - WiU be a PP ro P riated to the production of fat, 

 Pft . a r. ch » lt ha s been already stated, nitrogen is not a 

 o?fat ,i k The P^portion, too, in which either flesh 

 by the f i produce(1 t can in some degree be regulated 

 bei 00cI > that abounding in starch, sugar, or gum, 



ng calculated chiefly for the production of fat alone, 

 meters .Soing sketch presents merely a brief and 

 trition -° U ° f the P heQ ornena of the process of nu- 

 re Ia graminivorous animals, to which, for obvious 



cessfuT' I lla8 been chiefl y confined - Although the suc- 

 altoo-plif ion of most of tn ese phenomena is not 



denfrf ° f recent date > y et ifc is believed that in this 

 what u the Credit due t0 Liebi S is perhaps equal to 



recent* 11 i claimed for an y of his predecessors. The 

 affords !° , ° f that learned professor on the subject 

 chemirAi 8t . ln S earnest of what may be expected from 

 ttent of 8 h- e h C - e ln tUe mterestin S and important depart- 



Seeing, then, the connexion existing between the accu- 

 mulation of flesh and fat in the domestic animal, and 

 certain conditions as regards temperature and exercise, 

 it is believed that the foregoing considerations are of 

 much value in determining the relative advantages of 

 the different methods by which the required conditions 

 are sought to be obtained. Stall-feeding cattle is not a 

 practice of recent introduction, nor can it be said that 

 science has had much to do with its adoption. It has 

 been for a length of time losing ground in certain districts, 

 while in others it is almost entirely abandoned, and 

 feeding in open yards, with shelter sheds, substituted, 

 although it would appear that the propriety of the 

 change may be gravely questioned — nay, that the prac- 

 tice abandoned is that which is still to be preferred. 

 Perseverance in an erroneous practice is no new thing 

 among an agricultural population ; their disinclination 

 to change is proverbial; but in this a^e of agricultural 

 improvement it seems not a little difficult to account for 

 the substitution of erroneous practice in the room of that 

 which would appear to be in exact accordance with the in- 

 vestigations of science. But it is believed that although 

 the practice was right, the manner of carrying it into exe- 

 cution may frequently have been so defective that it was 

 rather a matter of surprise that any progress should have 

 been made towards effecting the object in view, than that 

 it should not have come up to the expectations of the 



feeder. 



That the arrangements for the maintenance of the 

 domestic animals should be such as to conduce to their 

 comfort as much as possible is not less enjoined by the 

 dictates ot humanity than by self-interest, as, when 

 suffering from any cause, that proficiency either in growth 

 or fatness cannot be made, which it is so much the 

 interest of the feeder to secure. When the animals are 

 confined, either for the whole or the greater part of their 

 time, the evils of even trifling inconveniences are much 

 increased. It is no unusual thing to see stall-fed animals 

 coming to the butcher having their knees covered by a 

 mass of cartilage, sometimes of enormous size, caused by 

 resting on a hard pavement. The pain endured by the 

 unfortunate animal, in the first instance, before Nature 

 interposed this covering for his protection, must have 

 been great indeed. Another arrangement, frequently 

 adopted with a view of preventing choking while feeding 

 on Turnips, is to shorten the neck-chain by which the 

 animal is tied, so that he cannot raise his head more than 

 a few inches from the ground. As animals being stall- 

 fed are seldom standing, only when taking their food, 

 it might be supposed that tying them down in this 

 manner could not be productive of much inconvenience; 

 but so injurious does it often prove, that the animals may 

 frequently be seen with the chains sunk in the backs of 

 their necks, from their constant pressure. Deficient 

 ventilation and want of cleanliness are also frequently 

 characteristic of such apartments, than which nothing 

 can be more inimical to the progress of the animals. In 

 those districts, therefore, where the practice of stall- 

 feeding is losing ground in the estimation of the farmers, 

 it would be well if they made strict inquiry to ascertain 

 that their arrangements were such as a rational and en- 

 lightened view of the animal economy would dictate. 



After having seen the importance of warmth, as facili- 

 tating the object of the feeder, it may appear an anomaly 

 to insist on ventilation ; but it must be recollected that 

 deficient ventilation is not always followed by an increase 

 of temperature, and that the latter can be maintained 

 with the greatest facility when the arrangements for ven- 

 tilation are the most perfect. Deficient ventilation 

 cannot be long in operation without seriously affecting 

 the health of the animals ; and it is mistaken policy to 

 suppose that when this is the case the object of the 



feeder can be promoted. 



The breeder and feeder of live-stock should not lose 

 sight of the important fact that the circumstances affect- 

 ing the growth and fattening of the domestic animals are 

 widely different. The grand object is, of course, to pro- 

 duce the greatest effect by the smallest possible expendi- 

 ture of means, whether the object be rapid growth, by 

 which early maturity is secured, or the speedy accumula- 

 tion of fat. A total want of exercise for any considerable 

 length of time, especially in the case of growing animals, 

 is believed to be inimical to the preservation of perfect 

 health ; but this is different from the short period of con- 

 finement to which they are subjected while being fat- 

 tened off for the butcher. A certain degree of confine- 

 ment may, it is conceived, be advantageously extended to 

 cattle of every description, but total confinement in the 

 case of young cattle and milch cows cannot be indis- 

 criminately recommended. The practice of house- 

 feeding milch cows has hitherto obtained but little favour, 

 simply from the circumstance of exercise being altogether 

 withheld ; but, were an hour or two daily allotted to this 

 purpose, very different results would be obtained. 

 J. Sproule. . ___ 



in proportion, upon the whole heap, when completed ? 

 and what are the most proper utensils to put the liquor 

 into when using it, and the best way of doing so ? — CarL 

 [In answer to this we extract the following from a com- 

 munication by Mr. Gyde, of Painswick : — " If we 

 assume, with Boussingault, that farm -yard dung, in its 

 ordinary or moist state, contains 0.40 in 100 of nitrogen, 

 we shall be within a fraction of the amount contained in 

 a mixture of 1 of litter and 3 of excrement. Hence, we 

 shall have in 10,000 lbs. of dung 40 lbs. of nitrogen, 

 equivalent to 48£ of ammonia, requiring 138 lbs. of 

 liquid sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.85, to convert 

 it into sulphate of ammonia (that is, supposing all the 

 nitrogen to exist in the condition of ammonia in the 

 dung) ; and if, for the sake of round numbers, we calcu- 

 late the 10,000 lbs. of dung at 4^ tons, we shall require a 

 fi action over 30 lbs. of sulphuric acid per ton, to convert 

 the ammonia into a sulphate ; each ton would then be 

 equivalent to 40 lbs. of crystallised sulphate of ammo- 

 nia. The sulphuric acid should be diluted with four or 

 five times its weight of water before it is applied to the 

 dung, or it will undergo partial decomposition on coming 

 In contact with the vegetable matter in the manure. 

 Sulphate of lime (gypsum) will not do as a substitute 

 for acid in this case, since I find that it will not fix am- 

 monia unless it is first dissolved, and as it requires 500 

 times its weight of cold water for its solution, its use in 

 that state would be quite out of the question ; neverthe- 

 less, if sprinkled freely over the fold-yard, it would fir 

 a portion, and would be a good addition to the manure. 

 It would require 50 lbs. of gypsum to supply 30 lbs. of 

 sulphuric acid, or to fix the ammonia in 1 ton of farm- 

 yard dung, provided the decomposition was complete." 

 The acid should be added every two or three days, when- 

 ever there is any considerable accumulation of fresh 

 manure; and it must be remembered that 30 lbs. of 

 sulphuric acid is the quantity required to fix the am- 

 monia in manure consisting of \ of litter and J of ex- 

 crement.] 



Rooks and their Owners It appears to me that their 



counsel has completely failed in making out a case in 

 their favour [vide page 32 1 ). He commences by saying, 

 " We hail with pleasure the arrival of the rooks ;" and he 

 goes on to extol their value, till at last he admits the 

 following faults ; and I think it no trifle in seed-time to 

 the farmer to have his seed stolen by his rooks, which 

 pull up the young blade of the Corn, on its first appear- 

 ance, to get the grain. " The pilfering lasts about three 

 weeks; we hire a boy at threepence and sixpence to 

 scour them off. In winter they will attack the Corn- 

 stacks." I will mention another fact to show that they 

 will take Corn if they can possibly come at it. A short 

 time ago a farmer took a quantity of Corn, and steeped 

 it in arsenic, and placed it in different parts of the field, 

 to see whether the rooks would take it or not ; they soon 

 cleared it off, and they were found dead ma.iy miles from 

 the place where they had got it, and the man was, there- 

 fore, troubled no more with them. Rooks are not game, 

 and the farmer has a right to destroy them, and I think 

 it is high time that they should be destroyed ; as in page 

 60 it appears that the expense which they occasion 

 amounts to 4000/., in a limited district, Garstang.— 

 Facile. [The farmer certainly suffers considerable in- 

 jury from rooks, which would destroy a good deal of his 

 seed, and many of his Potatoe sets in spring, were he 

 not at some expense to prevent them. The only question 

 for consideration is— Would he not suffer to a greater 

 degree, were these birds "destroyed, by the depredations 

 of insects, which would then undoubtedly prevail in much 



larger numbers ?] 



Thorn Planting.— The Duke of Hamilton has been 

 making considerable improvements upon his estates in 

 the neighbourhood of Garstang, for some years past ; 

 and, amongst other things, I have noticed the removing 

 of the unsightly fences, and the planting them upon an 

 entirely different system. The present year he has 

 planted to a considerable extent. Instead of planting 

 the Thorns upright, he lays them ; those planted upright 

 this season appear almost dead, and have made no new 

 wood, owing, I suppose, to the dryness of the weather; 

 while those laid have made wonderfully fine young shoots. 



Facile, Garstang. . 



Daniels' Manure.— YThere it has been properly ap- 

 plied, Daniels' manure, in some instances, has been of 

 considerable benefit ; but the season has been very much 

 against it. I am sorry to say that, in the experiments 

 by the farmers hereabout, the manure was not half 

 buried, and, of course, all nutriment which was exposed 

 was soon volatilised by the sun and air. Mr. Daniels 

 own Wheat was excellent ; but great pains was taken to 

 bury the substance, likewise to sow the seed. He is 

 now giving it the sixth trial on the same land. I have 

 seen Potatoes turn out a good crop with the manure, 

 from a very poor shallow soil, where it would not bring 

 sufficient to pay for cultivation before. It has been tried 

 here with Potatoes, in a loamy soil— two quarters of 

 acres on some arable land, one with stable manure, and 

 the other with Daniels', and there was no difference in 

 crop or flavour, but more haulm to the artificial. Iadeed > 

 when properly applied, I think it will be of « rea * ™ e " 

 to shallow uplands. It was carefully tried near tn is on 

 pasture, in three different ways, with no ° enenc *•• _ 

 ever. It is of no good to gardens on a loamy 



T. Wharton, Weston, Bath. . „ rnpr iinents 



Farm-yard Manure.-kmong the various e*pe^ ^ 

 with manures which I am constantly reaaiug ^_. 



Home Correspondence. 



Fixation of Ammonia.— \ am about to commence the 

 formation of a manure-heap on a very extensive scale, 

 according to the plan and directions given in your dum- 

 ber of the 15th ult., and shall feel greatly obliged if you, 

 or any of your correspondents, will answer me the fol- 

 lowing queries :— Is diluted sulphuric acid still consi- 

 dered the best article for fixing the ammonia. U nat 

 quantity of water should be used for each pound ot the 

 acid I and how many pounds of acid are sufficient for 



two 2-horse cart-loads, exclusive of the earth, road-side 

 scrapings, &c. laid upon each layer of fold manure in 



forming the heap ? Should the diluted acid be used , nitrate of soda ^^"^^pcrimcnU, poor ton 

 upon each layer, each day's work, at night \ or the whole ask is, \l hether, in all these 



wun manures wnicn l amcou^-;- t he showing 

 your Paper, the grand result see ™£ d by guan0f 

 much farm-yard manure is *v*v 

 e of soda, bone-dust, Ac. 8cc. >ow jhat 



how 

 nitrate 



1 wish to 



