486 



THE AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE. 



[July 



the place. Neither of these, however, occur on the 



table land, the annual temperature of which is, probably, 

 above 3° degrees Irss than either. — M. S. 



ON LIQUID MANURE —No. III. 



{Concluded from p. 467.) 



" In pursuing the above subject, tor the purpose of as- 

 certaining the cheapest and most economical method of 

 converting the ammonia generated in urine by putrefac- 

 tion into a fixed salt, we next come to Sulphuric Acid. 

 This acid, from the large quantity which is used in our 

 arts and manufactures, is now produced at a much 

 cheaper rate than formerly. It offers the most certain, 

 if not quite the cheapest mode of fixing the ammonia 

 contained in putrid urine by at once entering into che- 

 mical combination with it. When sulphate of iron, sul- 

 phate of lime, or any of the soluble salts are used for 

 this purpose, a double decomposition occurs : the two 

 constituents of the substance used are separated, and 

 enter into new combinations with the ammonia ; but be- 

 fore this change can take place, the two substances which 

 are intended to react on each other— i. £., before the 

 acid of the one can combine with the alkali (ammonia) of 

 the other, both must be in solution ; and when the sub- 

 stance used to fix the ammonia is sparingly soluble, as is 

 the case with gypsum, much care and time is nec;ssary 

 effectually to accomplish this object But when the acid 

 itself is used, no such inconvenience takes place; the 

 acid'at once combines with the ammonia, and forms a 

 sulphate of ammonia, while carbonic acid escapes with 

 effervescence. In using sulphuric acid in liquid manure, 

 there are several advantages obtained over that of gypsum, 

 or sulphate of iron, since in the first place no deposit takes 

 place in the tank, which requires it to be occasionally 

 emptied ; and if a slight excess of acid be added, no in- 

 jurious action is exerted by it on the plants, should it in 

 this state be added to the soil ; indeed, a slight excess of 

 acid in the tank would be more beneficial than otherwise, 

 since urine contains no inconsiderable portion of 

 phosphate of lime and magnesia; and an excess of acid 

 would convert this into a superphosphate, which 

 is more soluble, and, we have every reason to believe, 

 far more efficacious than phosphate of lime or bone-earth; 

 for by the use of a small quantity of bones dissolved in 

 sulphuric acid, by which a soluble superphosphate of 

 lime is formed, we are enabled to produce as large a crop 

 of Turnips as by the use of many times the weight of 

 bones without the acid.* When sulphuric acid is used 

 in liquid manure, it may be added in small quantities as 

 long as any effervescence occurs, stirring the liquid after 

 each addition, and waiting until the effervescence has 

 subsided before any fresh addition of acid be made ; and 

 it is advisable that this should be done at intervals of 

 ten days or a fortnight where convenient. In purchasing 

 sulphuric acid, care should be taken to ascertain that it 

 is of full strength, namely, of 1*85 specific gravity; and, 

 as its strength is in direct proportion to its specific gravity, 

 this is a good criterion by which the purchaser can pro- 

 tect himself against imposition. The following is a mode 

 by which an inexperienced person may ascertain if it be 

 undiluted : — Fill an imperial pint with water, and place 

 it in the scales, having first balanced, or ascertained the 

 weight of the empty cup ; the water should weigh 20 

 ounces ; remove the ctp, and pour away the water, then 

 fill it with the acid the strength of which it is required 

 to ascertain, and again weigh it; if it weighs about 

 17 ounces more thai the pint of water, the acid is of 

 ordinary commercial strength, but if much less, it has 

 been in all probability diluted. 



Common Salt has been strongly recommended to 

 fix the ammonia in uriue, since it was thought to possess 

 the double advantage of not only forming a muriate of 

 ammonia, by the acid contained in the salt co bining 

 with the ammonia in the urine, but because the carbonate 

 of soda which would also have been found would act 

 as a beneficial manure, supplying plants with an alkali ; 

 and, if this theory had been correct, salt would 

 certainly have possessed great claims on the farmer's 

 attention ; but unfortunately the decomposition which 

 goes on when concentrated solutions of common salt 

 and carbonate of ammonia are mixed together, takes 

 place on too limited an extent in diluted solutions, as we 

 meet with it in urine, to be of any service to the farmer. 

 "When two concentrated solutions of salt and carbonate 

 of ammonia are mixed, a quantity of carbonate of soda 

 and muriate of ammonia are formed ; the carbonate of 

 soda being comparatively insoluble in a solution of 

 muriate of ammonia, it is deposited in the vessel, and 

 may be separated by a filter. But if this mixture be 

 largely diluted with water, and the carbonate of soda re- 

 dissolved, the elements again arrange themselves in their 

 original form, namely, carbonate of ammonia and salt. 

 Strange ma this may appear to those unacquainted with 

 chemistry, it is nevertheless the case that when strong 

 solutions of the above salts are mixed, a decomposition 

 takes place, which does not occur, or at least verv par- 

 tially, in less concentrated solutions; and as putrid" urine 

 is_aweak solution ot Mmnoai*, tait undergoes little or no 



* » In adding: sulphuric acid and ertob. dust (phosphate 

 of lime), the su'phurfc acid combines with part of the lime 

 forming sulphate ot lime; while the phosphoric acid which is 

 left attaches itself to the remaining portion of uiidecomuoseu 

 bone, and forms with it a Miperphoj.phate of lime, or bone-earth 

 with excess o/ phosphoric acid, which is s- luhle in the mixture 

 Hence, we have a mixture of sulphate of lime and Mperphoc 

 phate of lime. May not the increase of crop from the u-e i 

 such a mixture be partly attributable to the sulphate uf lime? 

 and would not a portion of gypsum, u with bone- icrease 

 the crop, by placing within the reach ot the roots of the 

 Turnip a substance which cannot fail to form part of its inor- 

 ganic food ? since it is known to contain lime (25 tons of lur- 

 uips containing about 140 lbs. or lime) as well as sulphur, both of 

 ■which the sulphate of lime would yield to the crop. 



decomposition when mixed with it. Hence the ammonia 

 does not become fixed, neither is' carbonate of soda 

 formed. Muriatic acid, spirits of salts, or hydrochloric 

 acid, may be substituted for sulphuric acid to fix the 

 ammonia in urine. It is, like sulphuric acid, extensively 

 used in the manufactures of this country, and may now 

 be purchased of the manufacturers at. three farthings per 

 pound, when taken in quantities. Like sulphuric acid 

 it combines at once with the ammonia, forming muriate 

 of ammonia ; it leaves no deposit in the tank, and may 

 be used in the same way as fhe sulphuric. In conclusion 

 I have inserted the following table, which shows the in- 

 gredients used to fix ammonia, the quantity of e«ch re- 

 quired to form 1 cwt. of sulphate or muriate of ammonia, 

 the cost, and the quantity of ammonia fixed. 



used, particularly Nos. 4 and 5, on a larger scale and dif- 

 ferent soils. A good deal more could be said on this sub- 

 ject, but perhaps enough for the present.— J?. JVf.,/ or . 

 merly a Pupil in the above Establishment. 



No. I.— The Three-Crop Shift is the best adapted for 

 small farms near a market town, because you can keep 

 more cattle on the same quantity of land than on any 

 other rotation, because there are two green crops and 

 one grain crop. It is as follows : — 



1st year. 



I 



2d year. 



I 



3d year. 





Weigut Hi 



Substance used. 



lbs. re- 





quired. 



Unburnt Gypsum 



148 



Burnt ditto. . . 



118 



Sulphate of Iron . 



224 



Sulphuric acid • 



84 



Muriatic acid • • 



8. 



Cost. 



A'tllll" 'lllil 



fixed in 

 lbs. 



ba.lt ol amnio- 



nia produced, 

 lbs. 



s. 

 3 



3 



7 



5 



d. 

 6 



8 

 

 



30 

 30 

 30 

 30 

 35 



112 of sulphate 



112 



112 „ 



112 



112 of mur.'ate 

 of amm ••nia. 



r. 



Potatoes and Tur- 

 nips 



Wheat or Barley 

 sown down with 

 Grass seeds 



Cutting Grass 



c^ 



Wheat, Barley, 

 &c. with Grass 

 seeds 



Cutting Grass 



Potatoes, Turnips. 

 &c. 



■a 



Cutting Grass 



Potatoes and Tur- 

 nips 



Wheat and Barley 

 with Grass seeds 



hi 



Same as first 



N.B. — The cost is calculated from the market price of 

 each article. — Alfred Gt/de 9 Painswick. 



ON ROTATIONS OF CROPS. 

 Skeing that you invite your readers to communi- 

 cate the results of their experience or observation, par- 

 ticularly in matters which intimately concern the 

 horticultural and agricultural communities, I beg to 

 offer you a slight sketch of the different rotations of 

 cropping practised on the model farm at Glasnevin, near 

 Dublin, which is under the Commissioners of National 

 Education for Ireland, and superintended by that intel- 

 ligent agriculturist, Mr. T. Skilling. A great deal is 

 said now-a-days about the rotation of crops, and very 

 justly so ; yet upon the whole how few are there that put 

 a good system of rotation into practice. If this com- 

 munication be the means of imparting the smallest 

 amount of information on so interesting a subject, the 

 writer has his reward. 



This farm consists of about 52J statute acres, and is 

 composed partly of a deep loam and partly of a light soil'; 

 it is worked by 1*2 young men, with the assistance of two 

 horses, each boy giving six hours work per day — the 

 remaining part of their time is devoted to agricultural 

 study, of such subjects as chemistry, botany, animal and 

 vegetable physiology, &c. The farm-house, gardens, 

 barns, and cattle-sheds, &c, occupy between three and 

 four acres ; the remaining 49 are divided into two rota- 

 tions of four and five crops respectively. The four-crop 

 rotation consists of 19 acres laid down in fields of 4 acre? 

 3 rods each. The five crop rotation consists of 30 acres, 

 divided into fields of six acres each. The reason why it 

 is laid down in two rotations is to show the pupils the 

 practical working of both systems ; were it not for that, 

 the whole 49 acres would be laid down under the five- 

 crop rotation. The number of stock usually kept on 

 the produce of the farm is 20 cows, 2 horses, and from 

 15 to 20 pies; the cows are fed during the winter six 

 months on Turnips, Mangold Wurzei, Potatoes, Hay, 

 Straw, &c. The produce of the first two — Turnips and 

 Mangold Wurzei — averages from 35 to 40 tons per acre, 

 say 38 tons; each cow is allowed, with Hay and Straw, 

 the growth of one rod of Mangold Wurzei, Turnips, &c. 

 Suppose an acre produce 38 tons, 1 rod will yield 9 tons 

 10 cwt., which being reduced to pounds, will amount to 

 21,280 ; this again divided by 190 days, which is rather 

 more than six months, will leave 112 lbs. for each cow 

 per day, which is a large allowance for ordinary sized 

 cows. 



The amount of crops raised on the four-crop rotation 

 is as follows : — In field No. 1 (see table No. 2). — Man- 

 gold Wurzei, Turnips, &c, 4 acres 3 roods. No. 2. — 

 Oats, 4 acres 3 roods. No. 3. — Same quarry under 

 artificial Grasses, such as Italian Rye Grass, perennial 

 Rye do., and Clover. No. 4. — Do. of Wheat. 



The crops on five-crop rotation are as follows : — No. 1. 

 — Potatoes, Turnips, Mangold Wurzei, &c, 6 acres. 

 No. 2. — Oats, 6 acres. No. 3. — Grass pasture, 6 acres, 

 a portion of which is reserved for Hay. No. 4. — Con- 

 sists of Italian Rye Grass, perennial do., and Clover, 

 which is cut three times during the summer and autumn 

 months for the support of the stock ; a great portion of 

 the last crop is made into Hav, for the support of the 

 cattle during the winter months. No. 5 contains the 

 same quantity of land, which is under Wheat or Barley. 

 The total amount of crops raised on the farm is as 

 follows :— Oats, 10 acres 3 roods ; Wheat, do. do. ; 

 Potatoes, do. do.; cutting Grass, do. do. ; Grass pasture, 

 6 acres ; grand total, 49 acres. The produce ol *20£ 

 acres of Corn is sold, the remaining 28£ is consumed on 

 the farm. Each cow is calculaied to give 8 quarts of 

 milk on an average daily, which, sold in the market at 2d. 

 per quart is, for one cow, Is. Ad. per day; per year, 

 24/. 6s. 8^/. ; or, for 20 cows for one >ear, 486/. 13s. Ad. 

 The cows are kept from two to three years, and then 

 beginning to go off milk, are fattened -'id sold, their 

 places being always supplied by others ii "ill milk. 



I ought here to mention that the cows are, strictly 

 ■peaking, house-fed summer and wimer, except two hours 

 each day during the summer months they are allowed to 

 exercise on a portion of the Grata pasture. By this 

 method the greatest possible quantity of manure is co - 

 lected, which is the great support of the lar^e and 

 luxuriant crop:?, of Wheat, Oats, Turnipp, Grass, &c, 

 The tables Nos. 1, 4, and 5, are sent merely with the view 

 of showing other rotations which might be advantageously 



No. II. — The Four-Crop Shift is best suited to strong 

 heavy soil that is able to bear cultivation ; it is very 

 beneficial to the farmer in localities where it can be fol- 

 lowed ; it is termed alternate husbandry : — 



1st year: Potatoes and Turnips. 2nd year: Wheat and 

 Grasses. 3rd year: Cutting Grass. 4th year: Oats. 5th year .- 

 Same as first. 



No. 111.— Fifth Rotation, or Five- Crop Shift, is best 



suited to light soils ; it is chiefly followed on the light 



soils of Scotland ; it is a good rotation for raising food 



for cattle ; it has three green and two grain crops ; they 



are as follows: — 



1st year: Potatoes and Turnips. 2nd year: Wheat, Barley, 

 and Grass. 3rd year : Cutting Grass. 4th year: Grass pasture. 

 5th year: Oats. 6th year: same as first. 



No. IV.— The Six-Crop Grass Shift; its crops are 



only fit for light, hill, or peat lands. It is well adapted 



for rearing young cattle or sheep. 



1st year: Potatoes or Turnips. 2nd year: Barley or Oats, 

 with Grass seed-. 3rd year : Cutting Grass. 4th year : Grass 

 (second year). 5th year: Grass (third year). 6th year: Oats- 

 7th year : samp as first. 



No. v.— The Sir-Crop Bean Shift. This rotation 

 answers well on heavy clay soils ; it is as follows : — 



1st year: Potatoes and Turnips. 2nd year: Wheat and 

 Grass seeds. 3d year : Cutting Grass. 4th year : OaU. 5th 

 year: Beans. 6th year: Wheat. 7th year: same as first. 



ON THE APPLICATION OF MANURES. 



A plant has been defined as a compound organic 

 body, deriving nourishment from the soil in which it grows. 



This definition appears to have been generally ad- 

 mitted, and has been almost universally acted upon, by 

 depositing in the ground such matters as are thought to 

 furnish this nourishment to the roots, while a power, 

 stimulated by light and heat, elaborating the atmospheric 

 air and the sap, has been supposed to reside in the 

 leaves. Some few — Tull and his disciples — have disputed 

 the utility of so depositing these matters ; they pro- 

 posed, by hoeing the ground, and such like operations 

 on the surface of the soil, to promote its disintegration, 

 and the admission into it of the atmospheric air, in order 

 to supply the roots with gases; and these seem, in a 

 great measure, to be the views of Liebig. Lord Karnes 

 and others, again, have contended, and, by some appa- 

 rently conclusive experiments, have attempted to prove 

 that water is the sole nutriment of plants ; but — which 

 seems to have escaped the observations of all — may it not 

 be supposed that the matters thus deposited in the soil, 

 instead of supplying plants with nourishment through 

 their roots, may really so supply them through their 

 leaves and the greener parts of their stems ? 



When we look at " one of the giants of the vegetable 

 world," stretching far, wide, and deep his vast roots into 

 the bowels of the earth, we must feel convinced that his first 

 and most obvious purpose is so to fix himself as to enable 

 him to brave the storm ; his second, to obtain from the 

 soil the means of growth and of prolonging his existence. 

 What does he seek ? He plunges his roots deep in the sou. 

 does he do this onlv to keep hold of it ? Does he not do 

 it also to seek food"? And what food ? The decayingani- 

 mal and vegetable matters lie near the surface; the action oi 

 the atmospheric air, and the heat of the solar rays, , do -not 

 penetrate the regions he traverses. It is water which ne 

 searches after ; and this, say some, is the sole toon oi 

 plants, elaborated in their leaves— this, they say, is an 

 that it is necessary to supply them with. To the expe- 

 riments made to prove this hypothesis, in which disuueu 

 water has been alone supplied to plants set in groww 

 glass, cotton, sand, &c, it has been objected, veim 

 much truth, that " these experiments are always per- 

 formed in or very near houses, where the air is not su 

 pure as in the open fields, and consequently where tney 

 have an opportunity of receiving as much nourishment 

 from the air as may compensate for the want otwna 

 they would have derived from the earth, if planted on a 

 rich soil. Here, then, is an admission by those wno 

 would impugn the evidence of these experiments, ana oy 

 the advocates for enriching the soil to feed the ^ roots , 

 that plants may be nourished from the » ,r /* ied *"? 

 effluvia from the habitations of man. Can it ne oeu 

 that- they may be equally fed by effluvia? in the open nei , 

 from the decaying animal and vegetable matters h 

 soil? It may be said that ammonia is ^ r0 ~' . 

 water in which the roots are placed, but it is mo F 

 bable it is sucked in by the leaves ; the con Jjary "F ^ 

 ha* tended more to check the progress ot trie wi » 

 system than all the prejudices of ignorance, 

 kuow," says L.ebig, M that the functions of » e £ ^ 

 and other green parts of plants, is to absorb carbon 

 acid, and, with the aid of light and moisture, to app 

 phate its carbon." 



