oo2 



THE AGRICULTUR AL GAZETTE. 



[Aug. 3, 



begun, not unfrequently, even before the completion of 

 Wheat sowing, as the stateof the weather andother circum- 

 stances may render convenient or necessary. The stiffest 

 and wettest fields are always ploughed first, for the pur- 

 pose of allowing the soil to derive the full benefit from 

 its exposure to the effects of frost and other atmospheric 

 changes during winter. Frost, in particular, exercises a 

 ▼ery powerful influence in meliorating strong adhesive 



soils. 

 The general mode of ploughing stubble land is by 



casting the ridges in the manneralready described. The 

 feirings are now made in the open furrows ; those in 

 which feirings had been previously made becoming open 

 ones. The ridges are thus ploughed in a direction con- 

 trary to that in which they had been last done, the furrow- 

 slices being reversed. 



Sometimes when the land is very wet and tenacious, 

 the ridges are cloven, feiring being made in every furrow. 

 All the furrows are kept clear for the purpose of preserv- 

 ing the land in a dry condition during the winter. Im- 

 mediately after the ploughing of the ridges is completed, 

 whether the field has been in Grass or in Stubble, the head- 

 lands upon which the horses turned are ploughed : they 

 are usually of the same breadth as the ordinary ridges. 

 In many instances a ridge is left unploughed at either 

 side of the field, to be ploughed with the headlands, as 

 one continuous ridge round the field. When this is not 

 done, the headhnds are generally cloven when broken up 

 from lea, and gathered when next ploughed from stubble. 



'It may be proper to observe here, that the system of 

 €rown-and-furrow ploughing, although the most expedi- 

 tious, is generally disapproved of, and is, therefore, but 

 seldom practised in this county. In heavy land which 

 has not been thoroughly drained, and in which a con- 

 siderable degree of curvature is usually given to the 

 ridges, this method of ploughing is, for obvious reasons, 

 altogether inadmissible. Even in light dry soils crown- 

 and-furrow ploughing has latterly fallen into disuse, 

 because necessarily occasioning as many open furrows as 

 there are ridges — a defect which is obviated, to a great 

 extent, by the practice of casting the ridges. 



Cross Ploughing. — In the usual management of the 

 farm, the first operations performed in the spring are 

 the sowing of spring Wheat, Beans, Oats, and Barley ; 

 after which the land to be that year in green crops receives 

 a second furrow, beginning with those parts which are 

 intended for Potatoes and Swedish Turnips- This plough- 

 ing is sometimes, but not frequently, given in a direction 

 crossing that of the ridges. In dry, friable soils direct 

 •cross-ploughing is perhaps to be preferred, as in light, 

 porous land no great danger need be apprehended from 

 wet weather j but where the soil is heavy, and not tho- 

 roughly drained, considerable injury is frequently suffered 

 by its being ploughed into large flat ridges crossing the 

 former ones, especially should a long continuance of wet 

 weather ensue. In such circumstances the second 

 furrow is generally given lengthwise, or in the direction 

 of the ridges, especially should the weather happen to be 

 rainy or unsettled at the time. The next ploughing is 

 usually given across; and if any more are rendered 

 necessary from the nature of the crop to be sown, or the 

 condition of the land, they are given in various direc- 

 tions, determined by circumstances. It is injudicious to 

 plough the same land twice consecutively in one direc- 

 tion, if it can be safely avoided. Instead of ploughing 

 directly across the ridges, a diagonal direction is fre- 

 quently adopted, the inclination to the line of the ridges 

 being regulated by the slope of the field. 



The depth to which land is ploughed depends upon the 

 quality of the soil, the nature of the crop, and the opera- 

 tions which are to follow. In ploughing lea, 9 inches 

 wide by 6 in depth are the usual dimensions of the furrow- 

 •Iice, the common calculation being that the breadth and 

 depth should be nearly in the proportion of three to two. 

 It is deemed injudicious to plough deeper than six inches, 

 or to expose any new soil in ploughing Grass land, par- 

 ticularly old pastures. In giving the first, or winter 

 furrow, to stubble lands, preparatory to green crops, the 

 plough is made to penetrate as deep into the soil as it 

 ■can be drawn by two horses. From 9 to 12 inches is the 

 «sual depth. The first furrow for summer fallow, and 

 lor Beans, is .generally ploughed something deeper than 

 that for Turnips or other green crops. On well-con- 

 ducted farms, the stubble land is always ploughed to a 

 considerable depth, in order to expose as much fresh 

 soil as possible — when the subsoil contains nothing 

 noxious to vegetation— to the mellowing influence of the 

 winter's frosts. In the process of preparing the land 

 for green crops, the second, or cross furrow, as it is some- 

 times termed, is invariably taken as deep as the strength 

 ot two horses will accomplish. When it is considered 

 desirable to plough to a greater depth than 12 inches, as 

 in summer fallows, three or four horses, according to the 



™JFj , S °5 are y° ked together. In the case of 



such deep ploughing a piece of plate-iron, about 3 inches 



«n„Mhn " , 8 °r mCtl r 8 atta <*ed to the upper edge of the 



«ou Id-board, for the purpose of increasing it? height, 



and thereby preventing the earth from falling back into 



the trench. Shallow-ploughing i. invariably practised 



After Turnips are eaten on the ground by sheep, that the 



manure may not be buried too deep ; and also in covering 



in lime, because it usually tends to descend of itself into 



the soil. In ploughing down farm-yard dung— a practice 



which I have already mentioned as being prevalent on 



•heavy soils in this district— it is not desirable to go 



any deeper than what is necessary to cover the manure, 



so that none may be left exposed to the influence of the 



atmosphere. 



The general breadth of ridges is 18 feet, this size being 

 found the most suitable for the several purposes of sow- 



ing, harrowing, and reaping. In very dry and light 

 soils, ridges are frequently dispensed with altogether, 

 such land being commonly ploughed into very wide 

 ridges called flats, and afterwards marked off into ridges 

 of the ordinary breadth, in order to regulate the sowing 

 and reaping. In some places where the land is of a dry 

 porous nature, ridges are often made 31 and 36 feet 

 wide. There are what are here termed band-win ridges, 

 in consequence of being reaped by a band commonly of 

 six reapers attended by one binder. The direction of 

 the ridges, owing to the irregularity of the surface, is 

 very various. As the principal ridges or hills, of which 

 the county is composed, lie in a direction from east to 

 west, the land slopes either to the north or to the south 

 and the ridges accordingly are made to lie in the same 

 direction, by which the Corn at both sides enjoys nearly 

 equal advantages from the influence of the sun. Al- 

 though the direction of due north and south is, for this 

 reason, to be preferred, when the circumstances permit, 

 yet it is the particular inclination or slope of the field 

 that mainly regulates the direction in which to run the 

 ridges. The practice almost universally observed, is to 

 form them directly up the greatest acclivity of the field, 

 by which the land, particularly such as is of a strong 

 retentive character, is preserved in a comparatively dry 

 condition during winter, or in very wet weather. The 

 operation of ploughing strong clayey soils too, can never 

 be so surely, or so effectually performed as when the 

 land is ploughed directly up the acclivity. When the 

 ascent, however, happens to be very steep, the ridges 

 are frequently formed rather diagonally, with a slight 

 inclination towards the right hand at the top. By this 

 arrangement, in ploughing up the acclivity the furrow- 

 slices fall more readily from the plough, which consider- 

 ably diminishes the labour of the horses. Another 

 advantage resulting from forming ridges in an oblique 

 direction on such land is, that the surface soil is less 

 liable to be washed down from the higher to the lower 

 ground by heavy rains or currents, while in droughty 

 seasons much more moisture is retained. 



It may not be improper to mention in this place, 

 that a kind of plough having two coulters and two 

 mould-boards was much used some time ago in East 

 Lothian, for ploughing across steep declivities, in 

 order that the furrow-slices may be always turned down 

 the hill. By means of a very simple contrivance, one 

 coulter and mould-board was depressed, while the others 

 were elevated, at the end of each furrow, by which all 

 the slices were ploughed to one side. Although a plough 

 of this description was much used in such situations so 

 far back as 30 or 40 years ago, neither it, nor any of the 

 improved turn-wrest ploughs since invented by Mr. 

 Smith of Deanston, and others, is now used, it being con- 

 sidered highly injudicious, if it can be possibly avoided, 

 to plough directly across the declivity. An oblique 

 direction is always preferred, because, by adopting the 

 former practice, the soil is worked down to the bottom, 

 where it speedily accumulates, leaving the top bare and 

 unproductive. In speaking of ridges, I have hitherto 

 supposed them as running through the entire length of 

 the field ; but as the land frequently slopes in different 

 directions, and as the fields are, generally speaking, of a 

 large size, it is sometimes expedient to alter the course 

 of the ridges, in order to answer the inequalities of the 

 surface, or to diminish their length for the purpose of 

 lessening the labour of the horses. Accordingly, in very 

 large fields of irregular surface, the ridges take various 

 directions, so as always to have them lie with the greatest 

 declivity, unless when the inclination happens to be very 

 abrupt. The quantity of land ploughed in a day by a 

 pair of horses, depends very much upon the quality of 

 the soil, and the dimensions of the furrow-slices. As 

 the land is for the most part very adhesive and difficult 

 to labour, the motion of the horses is necessarily slow, 

 but even in the strongest soils a pair of stout horses is 

 allowed to be capable of completing in nine hours three 

 roods when the land is in Grass, or about an imperial 

 acre when ploughed from stubble. In very light soils, 

 or when the land is in a loose half-pulverised state, con- 

 siderably more is often done, but in an average quality 

 of land, a statute agre is the general allowance to a pair 

 of horses in the day.— 7\ Sullivan. 



Home Correspondence. 



Adulteration of Manures.— 1 collect from your Paper, 

 as well as from other sources, that great adulteration 

 either takes place, or is suspected, in that valuable 

 manure guano. I observe too that a certain class of 

 chemists and country druggists are desirous to have the 

 job of analysing every bag which is bought and sold. I 

 do not wonder at this : they will make a good thing of it, 

 if they can persuade the farmers to come into the plan ; 

 but this they never will do, and the sooner you put an 

 end to this wild notion, and recommend something more 

 practicable, the better it will be for all parties. I will 

 suggest to you a certain remedy for the evil. There are 

 several large houses who import great quantities direct 

 from the countries where it is found ; they will, of 

 course, always bring the best article they can find, as the 

 charges and expenses are no more upon the good than 

 they are upon the bad. They are highly respectable 

 people, and may be trusted ; but besides this, you have 

 their interest on your side, because it is a great object 

 to therq that the trade should increase, which can only 

 be by the increase of consumption consequent on the 

 good effects of the manure. They are sure, therefore, not 

 to adulterate it. Now allthe farmer has to do is to write 

 an order dipect to the merchant who imports, and he will 

 get the guano from the first hand, at the first price ; be 

 quite sure there is no adulteration, and save money by 



not going to the middle-man, where only the adulteration 

 now so universally complained of takes place. The 

 farmer, however, will have to pay the carriage; and in 

 order to reduce that, let me recommend to him always to 

 purchase the very best quality imported. — «/. G. [The 

 plan suggested by our correspondent will be a security 

 in a measure against artificial adulteration, but not 

 against that (which, however, is not so much to be dreaded) 

 arising from natural causes — the admixture of earthy 

 matter with the manure by wind, for instance, on the 

 islands where it is procured. It is the interest of those 

 who import nitrate of soda and other salts, as much as it 

 is of the importer of guano, to procure a pure article, for 

 it saves them expense of carriage ; but we know that the 

 former article as imported is often adulterated to the 

 extent of 10 or 20 per cen^. The purchasers of this, 

 however, are not cheated ; they judge of the quality of 

 what they buy from an authenticated analysis. Why 

 may not the purchasers of guano have this security also ? 

 We reiterate our advice to ail purchasers of guano, to 

 require from all venders of it authenticated analyses in 

 this maimer, and then "put aside a pound of the sub- 

 stance in a glass bottle, cork it securely, and seal it up, 

 so that it may eventually become evidence against the 

 seller. If crops fail, or suspicion is aroused, have it 

 formally analysed, and then if it turn out to be different 

 from the analysis on the faith of which it was bought, 

 proceed at law against the seller.''] 



Hybridising Barley. — I have endeavoured to hybridise 

 Alpine Strawberries with Hautbois, and vice versd, but 

 have never succeeded. I have frequently thought that 

 Hordeum pratense might be hybridised by common Barley, 

 and that the result would be a larger grain in the Hor- 

 deum pratense. I apprehend that the first operation 

 would not be attended with perfect results, but think 

 that if the hybridised Hordeum pratense were again and 

 again operated upon, by the third season the object 

 might be attained. But this may perhaps be needless, 

 as I think I have read of a Polish or a Russian sort of 

 Barley that is perennial. I have also thought that if the 

 larger grains of Hordeum pratense were selected, a 

 larger grain might be produced ; and that, if the largest 

 of these larger grains were selected, the same sort of 

 result as above might be attained. What, however, I 

 chiefly seek for is a Barley of a hardy description, that 

 might stand the winter, and be harvested earlier in the 

 ensuing season. Perhaps some of your ingenious readers 

 may turn this hint to account. — M. B. G. 



Bark of Trees. — Your correspondent "Clericus, V.," 

 inquires in last Chronicle for " a simple means of pre- 

 venting cows from gnawing the bark of trees." I have 

 suffered from the havoc made by sheep in this respect, 

 and have found a preparation of soot and cowdung a 

 pretty good preventive, the soot being the active agent ; 

 but the appearance is unsightly. I mean to try a strong 

 infusion of Socotrine Aloes as the cheapest bitter I know 

 of, and free from the objection to soot on the score of its' 



colour. — Anon. 



Late Horse-hoeing.— -This is, as you say, an important 

 question. We are told, on good authority, that Rasp- 

 berries, Strawberries, Vines, and indeed all fruits, should 

 not be dug about at all. Am I right in supposing that 

 the seeming contrariety between this advice and yours 

 about Turnips arises thus ? — In the case of Turnips, 

 Potatoes, Cabbages, &c, where a large system of leaves 

 or tubers is wanted, the frequent and late digging is 

 beneficial, inasmuch as it encourages vigour of growth in 

 the plant, both leaves and roots ; but in the case of fruits 

 you must check the growth sometime or other, or the 

 plant would not blossom, or, at least, there would be 

 comparatively few blooms. — IV, C. 



Selection of Seed.— As the two following examples 

 may prove useful to some of your readers, by impressing 

 on them the necessity of being very careful in procuring 

 seed for the Turnip-crop, I will transcribe them from my 

 note-book, for insertion in your Paper. Not saving 

 quite enough Swede-seed to drill the whole of my ' fieia, 

 I procured a small quantity from a country seed-shop to 

 complete the job ; but when the plants began to come 

 up there was a remarkable difference in the rows wnere 

 this seed was used. The plants were not only several 

 days later in making their appearance, but came up yery 

 irregularly, and did not grow so fast as the others. ine 

 seed drilled in the rest of the field was grown last ^year 

 by a neighbour, and not beaten out till this spring, iney 

 were both drilled the same day, with the same manure ; 

 thus both having an equal chance. Intending to sow a 

 field that had been pared and burnt, with common 

 Turnips, I procured my seed from the same source as 

 the unsuccessful Swede seed, and prepared to [sow 

 very early. Fortunately for me the season was so dry 

 that although the ground was ploughed it was impossiDie 

 to work it for some weeks. In the meantime a farmer 

 in the neighbourhood harvested some Turnip-seed, ana 

 I, thinking to make sure, procured some which I mixed 

 with the rest, at the rate of 1 Jibs, per acre of new seed 

 to 2lbs. of old. I sowed five acres out of a six acre 

 field with this mixture, and the plants are now up well 

 and! regular, but not at all too tlrck ; in short there is 

 every prospect of a good crop. It is impossible to tell 

 the age of the seed procured from the shop, though it is 

 evident it did not vegetate to any extent ; and had I 

 depended entirely upon it, the crop would .^ve failed. 

 The remaining acre of the field was sown with 3>lbs. or 

 the old seed, which came up so thick, I was obliged to 

 harrow in some new seed. My reason for sowing all old 

 seed on one acre was to have an acre of Tankards, HM 

 new being the White Globe. The single acre is in the 

 middle of the field, and the Turnip-plants on each side 

 are in a most flourishing condition.— Arthur Hall, me 

 Cwm, Chepstow. 



