5G2 



THE AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE. 



mng, but it is generally understood that three Corn crops 

 shall* not fohow in succession. The Wheat crop is on 

 an average about 18 bushels per acre; the Red Straw 

 Lammas is the kind chiefly sown. It is almost univer- 

 sally drilled in. The Wheat crop is followed by Oats, or 

 in fome few instances by Barley. The average Oat crop 

 varies from four to five quarters, that of the Barley crop 

 is in general less than thirty bushels. The Oat stubble 

 is pared and burnt in autumn, and after two ploughings 

 the land is sown to Turnips or Swedes in May or June. 

 This is still generally done broast-cast, but the practice 

 of boutiuE: and drilling is gradually becoming more 

 general. The Turnip crop is not, on an average, above 

 12 tons to the acre. This low average is, perhaps, partly 

 owing t> the circumstance that no horse -hoes or drill- 

 harrows are used to stir the land during the growth of 

 the crop, and also, to the practice of not thinning them 

 out sufficiently. This is the only crop in the course 

 where dung is applied to the land. The Turnip crop, 

 with the exception of a small portion of it, which is carted 

 home for the labouring oxen, or for any fatting oxen that 

 the farmer may have, is eaten on the land by the sheep. 

 This prepares it for the Barley crop, which is sown after 

 a single furrow in the months of April or May. Clover 

 •eeds, with the common Rye Grass, are sown with the 

 Barley. They to general remain two years on the land: 

 an average crop of about 15 cwt. of Hay is cut. After 

 lying down two years, the land is ploughed up for Wheat, 

 which is sown about the beginning of September, either 

 on a single furrow or after a double ploughing. The first 

 furrow in the latter case is called raftering, that is, the 

 land is half ploughed, each furrow-slice being laid on its 

 breadth of fast land. This is dragged and harrowed, and 

 a second furrow is then taken. The plough in common 

 use is the Beverstone wheel-plough, having a wooden 

 mould-board. It is drawn either by three horses or four 

 oxen. Besides these crops, one-sixth part of the farm is, 

 in general, in Saintfoin each year. This is ajmost useful 

 plant to the hill farmer. The soil of the Bath-stone is 

 well suited for it ; and large crops are grown where 

 Clover would fail. It is sown and kept down for six or 

 seven years — as long, in fact, as it will remain in the land. 

 When the land is once tired of it, it is long before it will 

 grow it again, and thirty or forty years are generally 

 made to intervene before a second crop is taken. Im- 

 mense crops of it are frequently cut during the first two 

 or three years; 10 and 50 cwt. per acre have been cut 

 under these circumstances. It is always broken up for 

 Turnips or Swedes, and, being pared and burnt, a thick 

 coat of ashes is laid over the land. In some parts of 

 this district, a system of burning is followed, which is 

 termed stifle-burning, by which, according to the testi- 

 mony of those who adopt it, the crop of Turnips is 

 greatly increased, without any additional expense of cul- 

 tivation. This way of performing the operation, as it 

 was told me, has at length falsified the old proverb, that 

 " Burning, though good for the father, is bad for the 

 son." It consists in laying earth around the heap of 

 Couch, Stubble, &c, to such an extent, that the combus- 

 tion is retarded though not stopt altogether. The vege- 

 table matter is thus preserved, and, instead of being sent 

 to the winds in smoke, is chiefly returned to the soil. This 

 seems to be the reason of its superiority to the old plan. 

 With regard to the labour of the farm, about one-half 

 of the ploughing is performed by ox-teams, four in each, 

 and one-half by horses, three in each team. The oxen 

 are in general bred on the farm, put to work when three 

 years old, and either sold as working oxen or sent to the 

 butcher, after an attempt to fatten them, when five years 

 old. Four teams, it is calculated, will plough three acres 

 a day ; and certainly, considering the shallowness of the 

 furrow, this is a light day's work. With the exception 

 of ploughing and general farm work, all other labour is 

 generally done by the piece. Thus, hoeing the Wheat 

 in spring is let at 4*. an acre ; hoeing the Turnip crop 

 three times, at perhaps 10s., and paring Oat-stubble, at 

 8$. an acre. Men and boys only are employed, except 

 at harvest-time. Women are seldom seen in the fields 

 at work with the hoe in their hands, although it might 

 be more economically done if they were employed. This 

 is certainly the best cultivated of any of the formations 

 occurring within the district ; and although the resources 

 of the soil have certainly not yet been driven to their ut- 

 most stretch, they have been driven harder than those of 

 the soil of any other district we shall have to mention. 

 There is also a much greater degree of interest taken by 

 the farmers in this district in the progress of agriculture 

 generally than there is anywhere else on the district. 

 There has been a great step taken here in the improve- 

 ment of agricultural practice within the last century, 

 i-his district was, not 100 years ago, one uninclosed 

 common let to farmers at If. an acre, who sublet it to 

 omers. U was broken up once in five or six years, and 



ti* J°<5 ?i ° at V aken ' seldom exceeding double the quan- 

 in£r/ w 8 ° W l a - The land l *y »actif e during the 

 fc?7h«n wTf? - heie Cr0p1 ' ^ ^ was overrun by a 

 whTr , t h^J fl * h ! VT * ? e?ree ke P fc ^wn the Couch 

 f!l 1 a - ! T ! ie *«««on which saw the 

 Jho Zrl 7 h f, haral y * et ^ne by. The farmers 



who were condemned for attempting its growth out of 



UnA T have , har ^ Appeared. Since then the 

 land has been inclosed, and the Turnip and the Swede 

 have taken that place which they must ever do in anv 

 good system of farming.— M, S. 3 



DRAINAGE OF SURFACE- WATER FROM 



HEAVY LAND. 



The very various and conflicting opinions as to what 



'fP erfect drainage, convince me that practice without 



theory is like a ship without a compass— dangerous, un- 



certain, and expensive. Having cut, during the past 

 year, with good effect, sixty miles of drain, I will 

 describe its action, and state what I consider to be the 

 true theories of perfect drainage. 



My operation being different to the usual custom, I 

 beg to submit my theories and practice for discussion, 

 approval, or disproof. The question of drainage is far 

 too important to remain longer in abeyance. The Royal 

 Agricultural Society will do an essential public good by 

 deciding the point. 



Theory. — That in perfect drainage, twelve hours' rain 

 should percolate and leave the land, in less than twelve 

 hours from the time the drains begin to act, the difference 

 in time being equivalent to the proportion of water the 

 earth chooses to retain for its use by capillary attraction. 



That to effect this, the subterranean area of porosity, 

 i. e. the surface of the drains, should nearly equal the 

 surface to be drained, so that if the space to be drained 

 were one square yard, the sides and top of the drain 

 should present an area for percolation equal to nine 

 superficial feet, minus the allowance for pressure. 



That the continuance of water in the soil longer than 

 it would remain by capillary retention, is injurious. 



That the earth and roots will abstract from the passing 

 water those gases for which they have an affinity, and in 

 which they may be deficient. 



That the form of drain should be deep and narrow, as 

 affording the greatest area of porosity at the smallest 

 cost, increasing the quantity of porous earth, available to 



roots. 



That the material for filling the drains should comprise 

 the greatest durability with the least power of capillary 



attraction. 



That where pipes are'used, their material should be 

 durable but porous ; their form not round or square, but 

 a very narrow and deep oblong, the object being to get a 

 large area of porosity. 



That small, round, hard pebble-stones, with a pipe 

 over them, as used on my farm, seem to present all the 

 advantages desired, viz., the impossibility of choking by 

 superincumbent earth, resistance of pressure from the 

 sides, absence of capillary attraction ; the round hard 

 stones having but little mechanical affinity for the water, 

 and offering but small resistance to its passage. 



That the passage of water in a pipe or drain is always 

 quicker than its percolation through the earth or ma- 

 terial of the pipe. 



That no drain should much exceed 100 yards in length 



(fif.y or sixty would be better), without opening into a 

 leading drain o p greater dimensions. If the drain were 

 in any part full, it would delay percolation. 



That neither Bushes, Straw, or other perishable ma- 

 terial, should ever be used in a drain. 



That the deeper the drainage, the better the crops ; 

 but in no case should any portion of the drain be nearer 

 to^the surface than 18 inches. 



There should be a leader to every 300 yard3 of drains, 

 giving it ample capacity. 



That there should be an open ditch, without fence, for 

 every seven or eight acres drained. The absence of an 

 occasional open ditch is what renders so much drain- 

 age useless. Long continuous narrow streets, without 

 frequent outlets, get frequently obstructed ; the same 

 may be said of drains — a full drain with a slow egress 

 sadly retards the filtration of water. Drains should be 

 never more than half full of water — the other half air. In 

 this way the superior weight of water causes proper fil- 

 tration by displacement of air and replacement of water 

 by quick passage. 



That the rapidity of percolation depends on the sub- 

 terranean area of porosity and the depth of drain com- 

 bined. Shallow drains want a greater area of porosity 

 than deeper ones ; because (as water presses equally on 

 all sides towards the vacant space in the drain) the deeper 

 the drain the greater the weight and column of water. 

 Consequently, the greater the pressure the more rapid 

 the filtration : filtration at two feet will be double that at 

 one— at four feet four times as great, and so on in pro- 

 portion to the superincumbent weight of water pressing 

 equally on all sides towards the drain. It is on this 

 principle that deep pipe drains act quicker and lay dry a 

 greater extent of ground than shallow ones— conse- 

 quently, the deeper your drainage, the smaller may be 

 your area of subterranean porosity. Pipes at the depth 

 of five feet would hardly need stones, the pressure being 

 about two-and-a-half pounds on every square inch at first; 

 and as the water escapes and diminishes, so will the drains 

 run slower and slower, in a ratio proportioned to the 

 diminished pressure. 



Now, although my drainage is considered the most 

 perfect in the county of Essex, I only consider it one- 

 fifth as perfect as it should be. My drains have one 

 foot of subterranean porosity for every five feet of surface, 

 instead of having five feet : still as it is expensive even 

 so, I must be content with it ; and I will assume it to be 

 the minimum of perfect drainage. 



During the recent nineteen hours' rain, after a very 

 dry time, the stones and pipes poured out an immense 

 volume of water, which, on the second, third, and fourth 

 day, gradually decreased ; proving my calculation correct, 

 for if my drains had been perfect, it would have all run 

 away in seventeen hours, instead of eighty. 



On comparing notes with a farming friend of mine, 

 who has bush drains from 200 to 300 yards long, in the 

 same quality land, he said, «' 1 know not what has become 

 of the water, for none has appeared in the ditches •/' and 

 he seemed quite surprised at my drains running so much. 

 What is the inference ?— that bush and straw°drains of 

 great length are perfectly worthless as compared with 

 pipes and stone drains of moderate length. 



[Aug. n, 



In fact, on one field I drained about three acres tU 

 same time, distance, depth, and soil, with scuds or band 

 of straw tightly fitted over the vacant space, and find it 

 as compared with the tile and stone drained part almo t 

 useless, so much so, that we shall re-drain it. ' 



The cause of my friend seeing no water is that 

 it stagnates and remains in the soil, keeping the root* 

 cold, wet, and sour, resulting in late crops and denselv 

 working land. I hope, after this, we shall hear no more 

 of scud or bush draining. From the moment our land 

 was ploughed after draining, no water has ever run off 

 the surface, whether in winter or spring, although our 

 fields have a pleasant slope. So far my draining has 

 answered, although I still maintain it is only perfect in 

 degree. It would have been real economy to have spent 



'he latter I give the preference to, the stones having less 

 apillary attraction. I consider drainage almost as im- 



c 



portant in a very dry season as in a very wet one. This 

 spring we had a practical illustration of it at Tiptree. 

 The crops never looked yellow as they used to do, but 

 always a healthy green, and the very first rain caused an 

 amazing quick growth. It is very easy to perceive that 

 porous drained land on a cool bottom keeps moist in dry 

 weather, by capillary attraction (like lump sugar resting 

 on moisture). At night the dews fill its surface. No 

 such effects can take place in sodden land, with gaping 

 cracks, and a baked impervious surface. 



If I am wrong in my theories or practice, I shall feel 

 obliged to any gentleman who will correct me, my object 

 being to arrive as near perfection as possible. Permanent 

 Grass on very stiff clays must be ploughed up before the 

 drains can act. The impervious pan requires to be- 

 broken up. This may be a subject of regret, but it 

 ought not to be ; for I quite agree with Mr. Morton, 

 that no permanent Grass can keep so much stock per 

 acre as the Turnip culture and green crops, fed, folded, 

 or stall fed, nor is it so profitable. Grass land is there- 

 fore a national loss, employing less labour, capital, and 

 affording less profit than it would do if cultivated with 

 roots, green crops, and corn. 



Drainage of Springs. — This must always be effected 

 by drain-pipes (without stones) fitting into each other so 

 as to form one continuous unbroken channel ; half- 

 circular pipes, fitting on each other, are sometimes used; 

 if properly loaded they answer, but are not so secure as 

 the whole pipes. 



I think we may lay down as a safe theory : — That as 

 the pressure of water is from below, and frequently as 

 much as fourteen pounds on every square inch, that 

 spring drainage should be deep, so that the superin- 

 cumbent earth be equal to resisting the pressure on the 

 pipes. That the pipes should be always large enough to 

 contain air as well as water. That no stones, bushes, or 

 straw should be used in spring drains, it being evident 

 the immense pressure I have mentioned would quickly 

 choke them with earth.—/. J. Mechi, 4, Leadcnhall- 

 street, ^ 



Home Correspondence. 



Drainage : Debenham Farmers' Club.— For the infor- 

 mation of your Mid-Lothian contributor, Debenham 

 is a small market town in Suffolk; and there are many 

 farmers in its neighbourhood (and men of education tooj, 

 who are Goths enough to doubt the efficiency of tile 

 drains, " as done once to last for ever," and still prefer 

 those filled with straw, stubble, or plashings, for clay land. 

 They do not think the tiles will wash away or wear out, 

 but on tenacious soils they often find such a portion i or 

 clay worked into the drain as to prevent the water 

 running, where by chance or otherwise they ha ve Deen 

 induced to try tiles. The drains made "} ^ SuffWk 

 fashion last from 16 to 20 years J and if » r . Gu^ood 

 will take the trouble to look into the Royal Agr icultiirti 

 Society of England's Journal, at Mr. Pusey ■ Report on 

 Draining, he will find much of the matter of d d.eu«ton 

 at the Debenham Farmers' Club Mee ttngrecor led man 

 article by the Rev. C. Hill. Tile-draining ^' in S ^J 

 only tried a very few years, the Suffolk farmers would 

 give as a reason for adhering to their old system, that it 

 has been in use in their county nearly a wnUg' 

 found very beneficial, long before ^."'""'Siu&d, 

 of, and they are loth to give up entirely an old ine , 

 who does not lead them into expense more than tMj . 



sure of having repaid, and ^****"^^J 

 untried and more expensive one. Mill it "can y ^ 

 that Suffolk farmers can reap any gam fr0 " l " lfa u 

 tiles, they will be immediately used for all or Marly 

 drains even in the Debenham district ; and many person ^ 

 I am told, are actually using them now, where t 

 landlords are sufficiently liberal to supply *«»: u F 

 utility of draining land in an oblique *^ 



state an instance which I *^ esse * >f \ U " where part 

 looking over a farm not far from ^^jf^J^ 

 of a field was drained down every other furrow (of W 

 each three yards wide), from top to bottom of the heW, 

 the other part obliquely across the ridge at ■.** y 

 apart-the field being rather hilly but ; not ste «p-l 

 inquiry why that part drained ongitud.nally had o 

 furrow and one dry one, whilst the other P* rt ur t of 

 obliquely was all equally dry, ""**»»£!&& 

 that drained down thefurrows. The onl anew"* 

 get, and the conclusion I arrived at was, that it 

 dra ned obliquely across the field the surface water 

 down each furrow, and fell into the drams a> it cam 

 them : and that on the part drawn longitudinally ^ 

 other furrow had no drain under it to ™™**£«> 

 As I do not pretend to know how the strata lay, o 



