50 



SCIENCE 



[N. S. Vol. XXXVII. No. 941 



mals, consists in habit formation, in estab- 

 lishing constant relations between certain 

 external or internal stimuli and certain 

 responses of the organism. At first these 

 stimuli are largely of external origin ; later 

 the external stimuli may be replaced more 

 and more by internal ones; but whatever 

 the source of the stimulus, the response of 

 the organism to these stimuli is one of the 

 most important factors of development, 

 whether of the body or of the mind. 



Among organisms a given cause does not 

 always produce the same effect; this does 

 not necessarily involve any violation of the 

 law of causality, since it is highly probable 

 that in responding to a stimulus the organ- 

 ism itself undergoes some change, and in 

 subsequent repetitions of the stimulus, 

 responses may differ because the organism 

 is itself diff'erent. This is what is meant by 

 "summation of stimiTli," "physiological 

 states, ' ' etc. Even in some of the simplest 

 organisms one can observe inhibitions of 

 responses and modifications of behavior, 

 which seem to be due to conflicting stimuli, 

 or to changes in the physiological state. In 

 higher organisms such inhibitions or modi- 

 fications proceed particularly from internal 

 stimuli, which in turn are probably condi- 

 tioned by hereditary constitution and past 

 experience. The factors which determine 

 behavior are not merely the present stim- 

 ulus and the hereditary constitution, but 

 also the experiences through which the 

 organism has passed and the habits which 

 it has formed. 



By responsibility in the higher sense I 

 understand the ability on the part of the 

 individual to respond to rational, social 

 and ethical stimuli, or impulses, and to 

 inhibit responses to stimuli of an opposite 

 nature; and the corresponding expectation 

 on the part of others that the individual 

 will so respond. The higher the type 

 of organization the larger is the range 



of stimuli to which it will respond 

 and the larger the number and kind of 

 responses which may be called forth; and 

 at the same time the larger becomes the 

 power of inhibition of responses, whether 

 through the balancing of one stimulus 

 against another or from whatever cause. 

 Human responsibility varies with the com- 

 plexity of the stimuli involved, as well as 

 with the capacity of individuals to respond 

 to those stimuli. A man might be quite 

 responsible in savage society, who would be 

 quite irresponsible in civilized communi- 

 ties. In an infant there is no capacity to 

 respond to rational, social or ethical stim- 

 uli, but with increasing capacity in this 

 respect comes increasing responsibility. 

 Mental and ethical imbeciles, insane and 

 mentally defective persons, have a low 

 capacity for such responses and inhibi- 

 tions, and consequently less is expected of 

 them. There are in different men all de- 

 grees of responsibility, as there are all 

 degrees of capacity. In one and the same 

 individual responsibility varies at different 

 times and under different circumstances; 

 it rises and falls, like the tides, in every life. 

 Varying capacity to respond to rational, 

 social and ethical stimuli, and to inhibit 

 responses of an opposite nature depends 

 not merely upon inheritance, but also upon 

 training, habits, physiological states. The 

 common opinion that all normal men are 

 equally responsible is not correct; in the 

 eyes of the law this may be true, but legal 

 obligations are so far below the capacities 

 of normal men that all may be held equally 

 responsible before the law, though in real- 

 ity their responsibilities are as varied as 

 their inheritance or their training. 



Conversely the responsibility of society 

 to the individual is universally recognized. 

 Irresponsible persons must be cared for by 

 older or wiser persons who become respon- 

 sible for them ; and in general the responsi- 



