APRIL 12, 1912] 
inal observation. Why? Simply because 
through a pernicious lecture system he has 
already been told all about what he is to see, 
before he has ever had a chance to observe it 
for himself. 
It is furthermore a fundamental law of 
learning (technically the doctrine of apper- 
ception) that we can not comprehend new 
facts except upon the basis and in terms of 
previous concrete experience. Hence the 
dictum: “In teaching, always proceed from 
the concrete to the abstract; from the partic- 
ulars to the general; from the known to the 
unknown.” It is therefore evident that to 
give lectures preceding practical objective 
study not only prevents the exercise of orig- 
inal observation but also inverts the normal 
procedure in the process of learning. 
Much time and energy is sometimes thus 
wasted in trying to teach by lectures what 
would be quickly and easily comprehended 
after the fundamental data had been acquired 
by objective study. In some schools, for ex- 
ample, the junior year is largely given over 
to lectures and other didactic work which is 
supposed to prepare the students for the ac- 
tual clinical work, the latter being chiefly 
concentrated in the senior year. This, it 
seems to me, is a fundamental mistake. If 
there were only one alternative, it would be 
better to reverse this order, giving the clinics 
first, and the lectures later. In actual prac- 
tise, however, they are best intermingled and 
closely correlated, care being taken always to 
provide the objective basis before the more 
abstract generalizations are considered. 
Even when the practical work is placed 
first, however, it by no means follows that ade- 
quate training in observation will result. In 
both laboratories and clinics it is a common 
practise as a preliminary step to tell the stu- 
dent (either orally or by printed guides) 
what he is to see. The student thus is not re- 
quired, and indeed has no opportunity, to ob- 
serve for himself. Practically all there is left 
for him to do is to verify what he has already 
been told. However valuable this may be, it 
does not develop power of original observa- 
tion. It is, of course, desirable to precede all 
SCIENCE 
569 
practical work with a brief introduction which 
will enable the student to proceed intelli- 
gently with his work. Such an introduction, 
however, should be merely for the purpose of 
explaining technical procedure and of raising 
questions the answer to which the student 
should seek by original observation. 
The ideal plan is thus for the student to 
work out everything for himself by the 
method of discovery. This applies not only 
to the original observations, but also to the 
later process of reasoning, whereby we pro- 
ceed from particular data to general conclu- 
sions, and thence to rational action. The 
method of self-activity may therefore be ex- 
pressed in a negative way by the following 
practical rules: Never tell a student anything 
he can observe for himself; never draw a con- 
clusion or solve a problem which he can be 
led to reason out for himself; and never do 
anything for him that he can do for himself. 
Unfortunately, however, there are limita- 
tions to the application of this method. It is 
difficult to apply successfully, requiring skill 
and experienced judgment on the part of the 
teacher. Lack of time would moreover pre- 
vent the student from repeating the history of 
the race by the method of discovery. But 
though difficult and slow at first, by working 
out for himself at least the fundamental data, 
a solid basis is laid which makes possible more 
rapid progress later. Time lost at the begin- 
ning is thus time gained in the end. We 
should therefore insist that so far as practi- 
cable this ideal method be applied for the 
purpose of training the student to self-activ- 
ity, in developing his ability in observation, 
reasoning and action. 
As supplementary to the foregoing, it is 
usually necessary to adopt easier though less 
effective methods of instruction. Thus where 
necessary data can not be secured by original 
observation, they may be supplied by the 
usual type of laboratory or clinical demon- 
strations, which the student can verify. 
Next in value below this as a means of im- 
parting knowledge comes the informal lec- 
ture or recitation, illustrated by demonstra- 
tions, models, pictures, ete. Next comes the 
