August 23, 1895.] 



SCIENCE. 



225 



Tlie Application of Facts to Proofs. (25) ProA-e 

 that water is formed by the combustion of a kerosene 

 lamp. (26) Prove that hydrogen sulfid contains 

 sulfur. 



The Interpretation of Phenomena. — (27) Apiece of 

 white paper on being held for an instant in the flame 

 of a candle and at right angles to it, a black ring is 

 formed on the paper. Explain what the ring indi- 

 cates, and how the particles of carbon are formed and 

 why they are deposited on the paper. ( 28 ) A Roman 

 candle on being ignited and then thrust under water 

 continues to burn. How can this be accounted for ? 

 (29) Why cannot fish live in lakes on the tops of very 

 high mountains.* 



The Application of Knowledge. — (30) The iodin 

 falls into the sand box. How can the iodin and sand 

 be separated? (31) A mixture consists of barium 

 carbonate, sodium sulfate and sulfur. How can 

 they be separated ? (32) A manufacturer has a waste 

 product consisting of a liquid containing 40 % of sul- 

 furic acid, 10 % sodium sulfate and 5 % ferric sul- 

 fate. How can he treat it so as to convert it into 

 other products that have commercial value? 



Deceptive or Misleading Questions. — (33) Dilute 

 sulfuric acid is poured upon zinc. A gas with a 

 slight bluish* color is evolved which burns with a 

 redf flame. What is it? (34) Chlorin gas is col- 

 lected in a jar over mercury j in the usual manner. 

 It is then brought into a eudiometer, mixed with 

 twice§ its volume of hydrogen, and exploded. How 

 many volumes of hydrochloric acid gas will be pro- 

 duced ? 



The Imagination. — (35) Filthy water of the gutter, 

 warmed by the sun's rays, escapes from a foul envi- 

 ronment, and, condensing, sparkles like diamonds on 

 the petal of the violet. Use this as basis for an alle- 

 gory in life. 



These questions do not by any means rep- 

 resent all the possible divisions of mental 

 action, and I have purposely avoided those 

 of a very technical nature, most of which, 

 however, would fall under the heads given; 

 but they will serve to indicate what oppor- 

 tunities there are to construct examination 

 papers that shall test a student's knowledge 

 and the working of his mind. It may be 

 urged against the questions I have given 



* Compare London University Matriculation Ex- 

 aminations, Stoker and Hooper, p. 31. Q. 6. 

 t Colorless. 



{ Chlorin cannot be collected over mercury. 

 § Once. 



that several of them might fall as well 

 under one head as another, or that a few 

 more elaborate questions could be made out 

 and each question marked under the several 

 heads. My experience, however, has not 

 been that the real ends are best attained in 

 this wa3^ The question that is distin- 

 guished by its definite natu^re and object 

 gets a clearer answer and gives a more sat- 

 isfactory insight into the student's mental 

 equipment and action than a long or com- 

 plicated one. If, after teaching a student 

 a subject for a certain time, an examination 

 shows that he can bring forth nothing more 

 than that which has been put into him, it 

 may be inferred either that the teacher is 

 incompetent, or that the student is intellec- 

 tually deficient; assuming, of course, that 

 the system in the particular institution 

 permits the teacher to do his best, does not 

 assign him more pupils than one man can 

 teach, and requires the student to do the 

 work assigned to him. In such case I think 

 that the fault usually lies with the teacher. 

 Still I admit that there are institutions in 

 which educational work of a high pedagog- 

 ical order is impossible, and mind develop- 

 ment, as distinguished from mind cram- 

 ming, is out of the question. In such a 

 case students are produced who are satu- 

 rated with knowledge, but who are inca- 

 pable of utilizing it. Like water-logged 

 vessels they roll about aimlessly, and are 

 unable even to keep out of the way of craft 

 which are taking the fullest advantage of 

 wind and tide. In such an institution the 

 earnest teacher, when he fails, deserves 

 sympathy more than blame. 



The results of examinations, conducted 

 on some plan like the one I have attempted 

 to describe, are very interesting. Such ex- 

 amination papers are far more difficult to 

 write than the calls for mere memorization 

 that are so frequently made on the student, 

 and which a hasty cram will enable a fairly 

 bright candidate to pass. The answers are 



