358 



SCIENCE 



[N. S. Vol. XXXIX. No. 1001 



The main factors represented by grades 

 intelligently given may be described by the six 

 terms : time, effort, mental ability, memory, 

 language sense and preparation. The relative 

 importance of these factors varies widely with 

 the nature of the subject, but all are involved 

 in every intellectual pursuit. The order chosen 

 is that of directness of control by the student. 

 Time. — This includes both that in attend- 

 ance on classes and that given to the subject 

 outside of class hours. Irregularity of attend- 

 ance on classes and deficiency of outside prep- 

 aration would have their obvious results in 

 this factor, irrespective of the reasons for such 

 irregularity or deficiency. 



Effort. — This factor includes the practise of 

 concentration in and out of class, largely a 

 result of past habits ; thoroughness of thought, 

 which passes nothing until really grasped ; and 

 system, which insures sustained and continu- 

 ous work as opposed to cramming at intervals. 

 Mental Ahility. — This is evidenced by the 

 ease and accuracy with which new ideas are 

 grasped. It is of course largely a natural en- 

 dowment, developed, however, or allowed to 

 deteriorate, slowly by its exercise or its disuse. 

 This factor is most important in subjects of 

 a strongly reasoning character. 



Memory. — By this term is meant the retain- 

 ing of ideas rather than the memorizing of 

 words or symbols; it is mainly a natural en- 

 dowment but somewhat subject to cultivation 

 by mental activity. 



Language Sense. — By this is meant the 

 ability to understand and to use language 

 with precision. It is probably to some degree 

 a natural gift, but is also largely a result of 

 early training and associations and an appre- 

 ciation of its importance. The student who 

 can not express his own ideas clearly usually 

 receives only vague impressions from his oral 

 or printed instruction. The language sense 

 can be cultivated by sustained effort directed 

 to that end. 



Preparation. — This includes general educa- 

 tion along intellectual lines, to which appeal 

 can be made for analogies and illustrations. 

 It also means a proper command of the earlier 

 part of the same subject and of other subjects 



directly used as foundational material and as 

 tools; grades wisely given in these antecedent 

 subjects indicate clearly the adequacy of this 

 direct preparation. It is in this factor that 

 the student who has habitually aimed at pass- 

 ing rather than grasping his curriculum en- 

 counters the natural consequences in his in- 

 creasing difficulties. 



In conclusion it may be noted that time and 

 effort are under immediate control; mental 

 ability, memory and language sense are sub- 

 ject to slow cultivation; and preparation is 

 beyond present control. Of course less than 

 all the allotted time, or less than the student's 

 best effort, or less than an average rating in 

 factors, would necessitate correspondingly 

 higher values for the other factors that an 

 average grade might be earned. 



P. N. Evans 



Purdue IlNrvERSiTY, 

 LaFayette, Ind. 



SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 

 Elementary Studies in Botany. By John M. 

 Coulter, A.M., Ph.D., Head of the Depart- 

 ment of Botany, University of Chicago. 

 New York and Chicago: D. Appleton and 

 Company. 12mo. Pp. ix -1-461. 

 It is a pleasure to note the gradual approach 

 to a standard course of study in botany for the 

 high schools of the country, and there can be 

 no question that such an approach to stand- 

 ardization is occurring if one will look over 

 the text-books prepared during the last few 

 years. Especially is this tendency marked 

 where the authors combine a considerable ex- 

 perience in the teaching of botany with a 

 comprehensive knowledge of the science. The 

 book before us is an excellent illustration of 

 this fact, which the author recognizes in the 

 opening paragraph of his preface, and which 

 is so good that we quote it complete. " It is 

 seven years since ' A Text-book of Botany ' 

 was published, and during this period there 

 has been not only great progress in the knowl- 

 edge of plants, but also much discussion con- 

 cerning the effective use of plants in high 

 school education. It is natural that a discus- 

 sion of this kind should lead to considerable 



