458 
and during the last decade or two working 
anthropologists have come to recognize the 
course of development of social organization 
in its several stages, 7. e., the natural history 
of law. Now it is significant that the most 
primitive social bond (found alike in Amer- 
ica, Africa, Australia and parts of Asia) is 
that fixed by the ocular blood kinship of 
maternity, and that the next great stage is 
defined by paternal relationship ; for in both 
stages the lines seem to be homologous with 
the instinctive habits of sub-human spe- 
cies, while the earlier the more closely ap- 
proaches the low plane of brute knowledge 
—so far as this can be inferred from brute 
conduct. The researches among the aborig- 
ines of America have thrown strong light 
on the lowly laws of primitive peoples ; for 
it has been ascertained that both savage 
clans and barbaric gentes are bound not 
merely by community of blood, but welded 
into homogeneous units by community of 
faith in zoic tutelaries—faith so profound, 
sd blent with fear and hope, so impressed 
by recurrent ceremony from birth to matur- 
ity and thence to old age and death, as to 
dominate every thought and regulate every 
action. The Amerind tribesmen are grouped 
by totems (or tutelaries) of Wolf, Badger, 
Bear, Fox, Deer, Coyote, Eagle, Bluejay, etc.; 
they call themselves wolves, or badgers, or 
Bears, or Eagles, and glory in the strength 
and magical prestige believed to be brought 
them by their genii; most of them recite 
traditions of descent from the tutelary ani- 
mals, or else from fantastic monsters in- 
vested with their attributes ; and every ad- 
equately studied tribe has been found to 
possess a traditional genesis or sacred cos- 
mogony in which the tutelaries, and perhaps 
other beasts, are glorified if not deified. The 
exoteric bond of clan or gens is blood-kin- 
ship; but the union is reinforced by an in- 
comparably stronger esoteric bond of ani- 
mistic belief. The way from beast-clauship 
to free citizenship is long—so long as to 
SCIENCE. 
[N. S. Vou. XIII. No. 325, 
afford the most striking measure of human 
progress; yet every step of the way is 
marked by the elimination of zoic concepts 
and by the substitution of those concepts of 
higher humanity forced on the genus Homo 
through the ceaseless strife for nature-con- 
quest. \ 
During some decades past, students of 
aboriginal tongues have been impressed by 
the failure of primitive folk to discriminate 
clearly between men and animals in their 
every-day speech; and this lowly habit 
forms one of the phenomena which have 
served (as recently shown by Powell *) as 
a guide to the natural history of languages. 
Many Amerind tribes denote themselves by 
a term connecting animals, either in general 
or of a particular class, and when pressed 
to specify are compelled to employ an affix 
or adjective to: distinguish the human kind 
(often considered inferior) from the rest; 
some, like the Papago, trace human geneal- 
ogy through only a few generations, for- 
ward or backward, and conceive the lines as 
beginning and ending in an undifferentiated 
magma of zoic life designated by a single 
term ; while some groups have progressed 
so far in the way of human superiority as 
to dignify themselves by the expressions 
‘Real Men,’ ‘ True Men,’ etc., in contra- 
distinction from alien tribes and other con- 
temptible creatures. The scroll picturing 
the development of language is expanded 
about midlength by the addition of the 
scriptorial branch, representing the growth 
of graphic expression : and it is quite in ac- 
cord with the growth-lines of oral expres- 
sion to find that the earliest essays in ide- 
ography are pictures of zoic objects, or 
objects to which zoic attributes were mani- 
festly imputed. Most of the primal features 
of modern alphabets have been convention- 
ized beyond recognition, but the hieroglyphs 
* *Philology, or the Science of Activities designed 
for Expression,’ The American Anthropologist, Vol. 
II., 1900, pp. 603-637. 
