38 



SCIENCE. 



[NT. S. Vol. XXII. No. 550. 



Here may be cited chalazogamy, which else- 

 where occurs in forms which may be re- 

 garded as degenerate ; the facts that only a 

 few of the ovules develop further; that 

 at the time of anthesis they are in many 

 forms not yet present, and finally the 

 dicliny of the flowers. There has been 

 much contention over the question whether 

 the androgynous flowers of these forms are 

 to be admitted to be the original form or 

 not. Let us look at, e. g., the Cupulifera?. 

 Most of the forms have diclinous flowers. 

 In Castanea vesca, however, androgynous 

 flowers occur regularly, and in the male 

 flowers rudiments of the ovary, in the 

 female flowers staminodia are often evi- 

 dent. But we know that for reduced or- 

 gans all gradations occur from nearly com- 

 plete development to almost entire disap- 

 pearance. From the formal standpoint, 

 then, the androgynous flowers may, with at 

 least as much justice, be regarded as primi- 

 tive as the diclinous ones, which, more re- 

 cently, have been thus branded. Just this 

 question is, however, fitted to clear up the 

 difl'erence between pure phylogenetic and 

 causal morphology. The latter says: By 

 the mere comparison of forms morpholog- 

 ical questions may not at all be decided. 

 We must first of all become more closely 

 acquainted with the forms to be compared, 

 by seeking to determine the conditions 

 under which, in living plants, the config- 

 uration of parts is produced. Concerning 

 the flowers of the Cupuliferge the question 

 then arises: is the occurrence of male and 

 female flowers dependent upon different 

 conditions and are these other than those 

 under which androgynous flowers arise? 

 As a matter of fact, it may be determined 

 that, e. g., in the oak the female flowers 

 always occur in those parts of the twig 

 which are stronger, that is, better nourished 

 than those in which the male flowers occur. 

 This offers us, however, only a point of 

 departure for a more exhaustive research. 



When we know better the relation between 

 the formation of flowers and the total ac- 

 tivity of the plant, when we have the abil- 

 ity at will to cause it to produce male, 

 female or androgynous flowers, when we 

 further know how it is determined that the 

 oak usually brings to development only 

 one out of six ovules, and why the pollen 

 tube follows a different path than the 

 usual, then may we further discuss the 

 question whether the Cupuliferge are primi- 

 tive or not — for then shall we have better 

 grounds for phylogenetic conclusions than 

 we have at present, and we shall then recog- 

 nize with great probability the changes 

 which have taken place in these organs as 

 phenomena resulting from changes in the 

 total organization of these plants. 



So, as the matter now stands, we can not 

 deceive ourselves on this point, that the 

 constructions of the old morphology, al- 

 though confined almost entirely to vestigial 

 series, nevertheless stood on firmer ground 

 than the modem speculations on the ques- 

 tion of primitive forms. Starting with a 

 completely endowed form, we can follow 

 the reduction of form through intergrada- 

 tions and, by reference to vestigial organs, 

 often with convincing certainty. But by 

 what means shall we judge a rudimentary 

 organ? Is it more than a gratuitous as- 

 sumption, when, as recently was the case, 

 a certain botanist declares the lodicules 

 of grasses to be not a perigone, but 

 a rudiment (Ansatz) of a perigone? 

 Whereby may one recognize a rudiment, 

 i. e., the attempt to form something new, 

 an attempt which, however, has remained 

 nothing more? In what way may we dis- • 

 tinguish such a rudiment from a vestigial 

 organ ? And, finally, after one has broken 

 faith wdth the old vestigial series, is it not 

 still more of the stamp of formal morphol- 

 ogy if he contents himself in arranging 

 forms in series and then comes to a stand- 

 still when he tries to decide at which end 



