OcToBER 1, 1897. ] 
and that the former, without the special 
defence, was mistaken by enemies for the 
latter, and thus escaped a considerable 
amount of persecution. The relation may 
be compared to that existing between a 
successful well-known firm and another 
small unscrupulous one which lives upon 
its reputation. On the other hand, Bates 
thoroughly recognized the existance of re- 
semblances between the specially defended 
forms themselves. These he could not ex- 
plain by his theory of mimicry, and sug- 
gested that they were a result of the 
influence of locality. Many years later 
Fritz Muller satisfactorily explained this 
difficulty by suggesting that a common type 
of appearance simplified the education of 
enemies and thus was the means of saving 
life. The lives of many individuals must 
be sacrificed before enemies have learned to 
recognize and to avoid the colors and pat- 
terns which indicate some special means of 
defence, and the fewer such patterns in any 
locality the smaller the sacrifice. The re- 
lation may be compared to that between 
two successful firms which combine to use 
a common advertisement. 
This latter theory, although received 
rather coldly at first, has gradually made 
way, and seems now likely to occupy a good 
deal of the ground formerly believed to be 
covered by the former theory. Thus, Dr. 
F. A. Dixey, of Oxford, has recently shown 
that South American Heliconine are affected 
by the color of certain Pierine which have 
hitherto been looked upon as true Batesian 
mimics of the former. 
The Old World Nymphaline genus Hypo- 
limnas has been regarded as one of the best 
examples of mimicry, but an unbiased ex- 
amination leads to the opinion that it af- 
fords a case of Mullerian rather than Bate- 
sian resemblance. 
In India the female of the common spe- 
cies H. bolina resembles Huplea Core, while 
the male is a dark butterfly with a large 
SCIENCE. 
517 
white spot shot with blue on each of the 
four wings. Throughout the Malay Archi- 
pelago representative species occur with 
males like that of H. bolina and females re- 
sembling the local Eupleas. Occasionally, as 
in Ké Island and the Solomons, species of 
the genus occur in which the male as well 
as the female resembles a Huplea. In Fiji 
the male is as in the Indian species, while 
the female is extremely variable, ranging 
from forms like the male through interme- 
diate varieties to brown and straw-colored 
individuals. The Eupleas of Fiji are not 
sufficiently known, but it is very improba- 
ble that all the forms of the female Hypo- 
limnas are mimetic. A still moré instruc- 
tive case is that of the nerina form of female 
found, with a male like that of H. bolina, in 
Australia, Celebes, New Guinea and other 
East Indian islands and in many of the 
Polynesian groups. This conspicuous and 
abundant butterfly has, in addition to the 
four white-and-blue spots of the male, a 
large reddish brown patch upon each fore- 
wing. This well-marked form resembles 
no other butterfly except the Danais chian- 
ippe of Celebes, and, as this latter appears 
to be very rare, it is far more probable that 
the resemblance has come from the other 
side, and that the Danais has approached 
the Hypolimnas. 
In Africa the subgenus Kuralia is repre- 
sented by several species which resemble in 
both sexes species of the Ethiopian Danaine 
genus Amauris. 
Finally, there is a well-known and wide- 
spread Hypolimnas misippus, which accom- 
panies Limnas chrysippus throughout its 
range; while the female of the former re- 
sembles the latter very closely. In this 
case it is certain that we have to do with no 
struggling, hard-pressed form, for the Hypo- 
limnas has recently established itself in some 
of the West India Islands and in Demerara 
—localities in which its model, L. chrysippus, 
is as yet unknown. 
