/ 



AUG I 1893: 



Eleventh Yeab. 

 Vol. XXII. No. 547. 



JULY 28, 1893. 



Single Copies, Ten Cents. 

 $3.50 Per Year, in Adtancb. 



Contents. 



Systematized Graduate Instruction in Psy- 

 chology. E. W. Scripture 43 



■Our Crippled Weather Service, James P. 



Hall 44 



Analogous Variations in Sphagnace^ (Peat- 

 Mosses). H. N. Dixon 44 



'The Close op the Ice Age in North America. 



R. W. McFarland 45 



Current Notes on Chemistry.— I. Charles 



Piatt, Editor 46 



Notes and News 47 



Three Ships With Beriberi Outbreaks. Al- 

 bert S. Ashmead 48 



The Structure and Affinity of the Puerco 



Ungulates. Charles Earle 49 



Do THE Leaves of Our Ordinary Land Plants 



Absorb Water? Edicard A. Burt 51 



Indh'idual Skeletal Variation. Frederic A. 



Lucas -. 52 



Notes on Japanese Meteorology. Albert S. 



Ashmead 53 



Letters to the Editor. 



Bibliographic Work in Vegetable Physi- 

 ology. J. Christian Bay 54 



A Plea for Botany in the Small Colleges. X. 54 



Among the Publishers 55 



Entered at the Post-OfiBce of New York, N.Y., as 

 Second-Class Mail Matter, 



Walker Prizes in Natural History. 



The Roslon Society of Natural History 



offers a first prize of from $60 to SlOO and a second 

 prize of a sum not exceeding S50 for the best me- 

 moirs, in English, on one of the following sub. 

 jects: 



1. The relations of inflorescence to eross-fertiliza_ 

 tion illustrated by the plants of Eastern Mas&a. 

 chusetts. 



2. What depths of formerly overlying rocks, now 

 removed by denudation, may be inferred from the 

 structure of various rocks in Eastern Massachu- 

 setts ? 



3. Experiments affording evidence for or against 

 the theory of evolution. 



Each memoir must be accompanied by a sealed 

 envelope enclosing the author^'s name and super- 

 scribed by a motto corresponding to one borne by 

 the manuscript, and must be handed to the Secre- 

 tary on or before April 1, 1894. 



Prizes will not be awarded unless the memoirs are 

 of adequate merit. 



SAMUEL HENSHAW, Secretary. 



Boston, July 3, 1S03. 



VSEPVt, HAND-BOOKS. 



The Ornamental Penman''s Pocketbook of Alpha- 

 bets, for sign-writers, engravers, stone-cutters and 

 draftsmen, 20 cts. A System of Easy Lettering, by- 

 Howard Cromwell, 50 cts. Practical Electrics : A 

 Universal Haudybook on Every-day Electrical Mat- 

 ters, 135pp.. fully illustrated, 12mo, cloth. 75 cts. 

 Notes on Design of Small Dynamo, by G. Halliday, 

 79 pp., with a number of plates to scale, 12tno. cloth, 

 S^l. The Phonograph and How to Construct It, by 

 W. Gillett, 87 pp., 12 folding plates, ISmo, cloth. $1 

 SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, Publishers, 12 Cortlandt 

 St., New York. Illustrated and descriptive cata- 

 logues, 10 cts. 



The BatracMans and Reptiles of Indiana. 



A Work of 204 pages, with 3 plates of 12 figures 

 Contains full descriptions of nearly one hundred 

 species of^Eatrachians and Reptiles, together with 

 abundant notes on their habits. The identification 

 of the species made easy by means of analytical 

 tables. By O. P. Hay, Ph.D. Price, in paper cover, 

 postpaid, Sl-00. 



Bowen-Merrill Book Co , Indianapolis, Ind. 



PCDMAMBA ^ monthly magazine for the study 

 Ul.nl7lHI1IM of the German language and litera- 

 ture, is highly recommended by college professors 

 and the press as ''the best effort yet made to assist 

 the student of German, and to interest him in his 

 pursuit." Its Beginners' Corner furnishes every 

 year a complete and interesting course in German 

 grammar. S2 a year. Single copies 20 cents. P. O. 

 Box 151. Manchester, N. H. 



mi METHOD OF PROTECTING BUILDINGS FROM LIGHTNING. 

 SPARE THE HOD AMD SPOIL THE HOUSE! 



X/ightninff Destroys. Shall it be Your JBCoiise or a Pound of Copper ? 



PROTECTION FROM LIGHTNING. 



What is the Problem? 



In seeking a means of protection from lightning-discharges, we have in view 

 two objects,— the one the prevention of damage to buildings, and the other 

 the prevention of injury to life. In order to destroy a building in whole or In 

 part, It is necessary that work should be done ; that is, as physicists express 

 Ir, energy is required. Just before the lightning-discharge takes place, the 

 energy capable of doing the damage which we seek to prevent exists In the 

 column of air extending from the cloud to the earth in some form that makes 

 It capable of appearing as what we call electricity. We will therefore call It 

 electrical energy. What this electrical energy is, it Is not necessary for us to 

 consider In this place ; but that it exists there can be no doubt, as it manifests 

 itself In the destruction of buildings. The problem that we have to deal with, 

 therefore, Is the conversion of this energy into some other form, and the ac- 

 complishment of this In such a way as shall result In the least injury to prop- 

 erty and life. 



Why Have the Old Rods Failed ? 



When lightning-rods were first proposed, the science of energetics was en- 

 tirely undeveloped ; that is to say, in the middle of the last century scientific 

 mon had not come to recognize the fact that the different forms of energy — 

 lieat, electricity, mechanical power, etc.— were convertible one Into the other, 

 and that each could produce just so much of each of the other forms, and no 

 more. The doctrine of the conservation and correlation of energy was first 

 clearly worked out in the early part of this century. There were, however, 

 some facts known in regard to electricity a hundred and torty years ago ; and 

 among these were the attracting power of points for an electric spark, and the 

 conducting power of melals. Llghtniug-rods were therefore introduced with 

 the ilea that the electricity existing In the lightning-discharge could be con- 

 veyed around the building which it was proposed to protect, and that the 

 building would thus be saved. 



The question as to dissipation of the energy Involved was entirely Ignored, 

 naturally; and from that time to this, in spite of the best endeavors of those 

 imerested, lightning-rods constructed in accordance with Franklin's principle 

 have cot furnished satisfactory protection. The reason for this is apparent 

 when it is considered that the electrical energy existing In the atmosphere 

 before the discharge, or, more exactly. In the column of dielectric from the 

 cloud to the earth, above referred to, reaches its maximum value on the sur- 

 face of the conductors that chance to be within the column of dielectric; so 

 that the greatest display of energy will be on the surface of the very lightning- 

 rods that were meant to protect, and damage results, as so often proves to be 

 the case. 



It will be understood, of course, that this display of energy on the surface 

 of the old lightning-rods is aided by their being more or less Insulated from 

 the earth, but in any event the very existence of such a mass of metal as an 

 old lightning-rod can only tend to produce a disastrous dissipation of electrical 

 energy upon its surface,— ** to draw the lightning," as it is so commonly put. 



Is there a Better Means of Protection? 



Having cleared our minds, therefore, of any idea of conducting electricity, 

 and keeping clearly In view the fact that in providing protection agalnat light- 

 ning we must furnish some means by which the electrical energy may be 

 harmlessly dissipated, the question arises, " Can an Improved form be given 

 <o the rod so that it shall a'd in this dissipation ? " 



As the electrical energy Involved manifests Itself on the surface of conduc- 

 tors, the Improved rod should be metallic ; but, instead of making a large rod, 

 suppose that we make it comparatively small In size, so that the total amount 

 of moral running from the top of the house to some point a little below the 

 foundations shqll not exceed one pound. Suppose, again, that we iniroduce 

 numerous Insulating joints in this rod. We shall then Uave a rod that experi- 

 ence shows will be readily destroyed — will be readily dissipated — wtiea a 

 discharge takes place; and it will be evident, that, so far as the electrical en- 

 ergy is consumed In doing this, there will be the less to do other damage. 



The only point that remains to be proved as to the utility of such a rod is to 

 show that the dissipation of such a conductor does not tend to injure other 

 bodies In Its Immediate vicinity. On this poin': I can only say that I have 

 found no case where such a conductor (for Instance, a bell wire) has been dis- 

 sipated, even If resting against a plastered wall, where there has been any 

 material damage done to surrounding objects. 



Of course, it is readily understood that such an explosion cannot take place 

 In a confined space without the rupture of the walls (the wire cannot be 

 boarded over); but In every case that I have found recorded this dissipation 

 takes place just as gunpowder burns when spread on a board. The objects 

 against which the conductor rests may be stained, but they are not shattered, 



I would therefore make clear this distinction between the action of electri- 

 cal energy when dissipated on the surface of a large conductor and when dis- 

 sipated on the surface of a comparatively small or easily dl-jsipated conductor. 

 When dissipated on the surface of a large conductor, — a conductor so strong 

 as to resist the explosive effect, — damage results to objects around. When 

 dissipated on the surface of a small conductor, the conductor goes, but the 

 other objects around are saved 



A Typical Case of the Action of a Small Conductor. 



Franklin, in a letter to Colllnson read before the London Royal Society, 

 Dec. 18, 1755, describing the partial desti'uct'.on by lightning of a church-tower 

 , at Newbury, Mass , wrote, ■■' Near the bell was fixed an Iron hammer to strike 

 the hours ; and from the tail of the hammer a wire went down through a small 

 gimlet-hole in the floor that the bell stood upon, and through a second floor in 

 like manner; then horizontally under and near ttie plastered celling of that 

 second floor, till it came near a plastei-ed wall ; then down by the side of that 

 wall to a clock, which stood about twenty feet below the bell. The wire was 

 not bigger than a common knitting needle. The spire was split all to piece*- 

 by the lightning, and the parts flung In all directions over the square In wht'_h 

 the church stood, so that nothing remained above the bell. The ligbtrirg 

 passed between the hammer and the clock in the above-mentioned wire, 

 without hurting either of the floors, or having any effect upon them (except 

 making the gimlet-holes, through which the wire passed, a little bigger), and 

 without hurting the plastered wall, or any part of the building, so far as the 

 aforesaid wire and the pendulum-wire of the clock extended; which latter 

 wire was about the thickness of a goose-qulll. From the end of the pendu- 

 lum, down quite to the ground, the buil-ling was exceedingly rent and dam- 

 aged. . . . No part of the aforementioned long, small wire, between the clock 

 and the hammer, could be found, except about two Inches that hung to the 

 tall of the hammer, and about as much that was fastened to the clock; the 

 rest being exploded, and Its particles dissipated in smoke and air, as gun- 

 powder Is by common fire, and had only left a black smutty track on the plas- 

 tering, three or four inches broad, darkest in the middle, and fainter towards 

 the edges, all along the celling, under which it passed, and down the wall." 



One hundred feet of the Hodges Patent Lightning DtspeUer imade under 

 patents oC N. D. C. Hodges. Editor of Science) will be mailed, postpaid, to any 

 address, on receipt of five dollars ($5). 



Correspondence solicited. Agents tvanted. 



AMERICAN LIGHTNING PROTECTION CO., 



874r Bi-oad.\vay, ]S^e^v York Citv. 



