2l6 



SCIENCE. 



[Vol. XIX. No 480 



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THE EVOLUTION OF COMMERCE.' 



For over three thousand years the great highway for commerce 

 has been from India by the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates or by 

 the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, and thence through the Med- 

 iterranean by Gibraltar to western and northern Europe, and, in 

 our day, thence to America. 



Along this route cities and nations have sprung up, increased 

 in wealth and power, and passed away, giving place to other 

 cities and nations further westward. These nations have been 

 great carriers and distributors of minerals and goods, as well as 

 capitalists and bankers, or carriers, bankers and manufacturers; 

 in either case controlling the commerce of the world. This con- 

 trol has never for any long period been held by the same race, but 

 has passed from one nation to another, always from the east toward 

 the west. 



The earliest highway of commerce was from India through the 

 Persian Gulf, up the Euphrates to the Mediterranean ; and carpets 

 and precious stones were then as now carried over this route. 

 Explorations and surveys for a railroad have been recently made 

 along this "our futin-e highway to India." Caravans brought 

 spices from Arabia and rich stuffs from Babylon and Nineveh to 

 the shore of the Red Sea. Solomon made a navy of ships and 

 Hiram sent in the navy his " Servants, shipmen that had knowl- 

 edge of the sea, and they brought gold from Ophir, great plenty 

 of almug trees, and precious stones." 



Tyre and Sidon founded colonies on the shores of the Mediter- 

 ranean, enslaving the Spaniards and compelling them to work 

 the mines of gold and silver already opened in Spain. Their ships 

 sailed through the Mediterranean, by the Pillars of Hercules, into 

 the Atlantic Ocean, turning northward to England for tin and 

 copper and on into the Baltic Sea for furs and amber; turning 

 southward along the western coast of Africa, passing certainly 

 two thousand miles to the equator and probably rounding the 

 Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean. Products from the 

 west were brought in ships to Tyre and Sidon and exchanged for 

 the goods of the east, their merchants making profits on each 



> Annual address by the president, Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard. Presented 

 to the National Geographic Society Jan. 15, 1893. Nat. Geog. Mag., Vol. IV., 

 1893. 



transaction both as merchants and as carriers. Tyre and Sidon 

 became wealthy, luxurious, and effeminate. Some of their citi- 

 zens saw in Africa a richer soil and a better situation for a large 

 city, and founded Carthage. The Carthaginians inherited the 

 trade of Tyre and Sidon, and in addition opened highways to Egypt 

 and into the interior of Africa, bartering their wares in Egypt for 

 corn and grain and in Africa for ivory, gems, and slaves. They 

 planted colonies in Africa and Sicily, and for a time were success- 

 ful rivals of Greece and Rome. 



The rule of the ocean transferred from Asia to Africa remained 

 there but a short time, for the day of Europe came with the rise 

 of Greece and Rome. 



The Greeks founded colonies in Asia Minor, Sicily, and Italy. 

 The ruins of great cities with Grecian temples and amphitheatres 

 ax'e found at Girgenti and Syracuse in Sicily, at Psestum and other 

 places in Italy. Under Pyrrhus, their armies were defeated by the 

 Romans and their colonies captured. Deprived of these, their 

 power rapidly declined and Greece became a Roman province. 



Rome. 



Rome founded few colonies, but she conquered the nations of 

 Asia, Africa, and Europe, and brought under her sway cities, 

 kingdoms, and empires. She boasted of five hundred cities in her 

 Asiatic province that had been founded or enlarged and beautified 

 by the Csesars. One hundred and twenty vessels each year brought 

 the goods of India from the delta of the Ganges, and large fleets 

 from Egypt came laden with corn and grain. She imported from 

 every country, but exported little, paying for her imports by taxes 

 levied on her colonists. 



Rome was the first power to incorporate conquered states into 

 her dominion and extend citizenship to all the people in her em- 

 pire; so that Paul could say in truth, "I am a Roman citizen and 

 to Csesar I appeal." So salutary and beneficial was her rule that 

 under it these countries prospered more than under their own 

 rulers. What Rome seized with strong hands she defended, and 

 in return for taxation gave protection. She has no more enduring 

 monuments than her roads, the remains of which are now found 

 in every country of Europe. Though built as military and post- 

 roads, they were used largely for commerce. All started from the 

 golden mile-stone in the forum; one ran over the Brenner pass 

 north-eastward to the Baltic Sea, another followed the north-west- 

 ern coast of the Mediterranean to Spain and southern France, an- 

 other crossed the Alps and extended through France to the British 

 Channel and through England to Scotland, where the Romans 

 built a wall, ruins of which now bear witness to its strength. 

 Another way went southward to Naples and Brindisi, and another 

 led eastward to Macedonia and Greece. As these were the only 

 roads in all these countries, it was truly said, " All ways lead to 

 Rome;" and over them the messengers of Csesar travelled more 

 rapidly than the mail-carrier of our fathers on our mail-routes. 



Venice and Genoa. 



After five hundred years of empire Rome fell, and the Dark 

 Ages followed. From A.D. 400 to A.D. 800 commerce and trade 

 died out. The only vessels oo the Mediterranean and Baltic were 

 piratical crafts; Jerusalem and the Holy Land were capture 1 by 

 the Turks; the Crusades began, forerunners of a higher civiliza- 

 tion and more extended commerce. Thousands and tens of thou- 

 sands of people from all parts of Europe and all ranks of life, bear- 

 ing the pilgrim's badge — the blood-red cross — journeyed toward 

 the Holy Land, first in vast crowds led by Peter the Hermit, then 

 in great armies led by kings and generals. For two hundred years 

 this movement continued. Venice and Genoa furnished ships to 

 carry the armies of France from Italy to the Holy Land. The 

 Venetians were shrewd merchants and drove hard bargians, stipu- 

 lating for cessions of land at the best commercial points and ade- 

 quate compensation for their services. After the failure of each 

 Crusade they brought back remnants of the troops and pilgrims, 

 and with them the products of Asia Minor, and books and ait 

 treasures from Greece. These were distributed all over Italy,, 

 and led to the renaissance of the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- 

 turies. 



The trade with the East brought power and wealth to Venice^ 



