November 11, 1904.] 



SCIENCE. 



629 



land settlements in Kansas; and such is 

 the communistic brotherhood, like Icaria. 

 Similarity of nature and agreement in 

 ideas constitute the social bond, and the 

 kind of society so created is therefore ap- 

 propriately called the congenial. 



3. There is a community of miscellane- 

 ous and sometimes lawless elements, drawn 

 together by economic opportunity— the 

 frontier settlement, the cattle range, the 

 mining camp. The newcomer enters this 

 community an uninvited but unhindered 

 probationer, and remains in it on suffer- 

 ance. A general approbation of qualities 

 and conduct is practically the only social 

 bond. This type of society, therefore, I 

 venture to call the approbational. 



The three types of society thus far 

 named are simple, spontaneously formed 

 groups. The first two are homogeneous, 

 and are found usually in relatively iso- 

 lated environments. The third is hetero- 

 geneous, and has a transitory existence 

 where exceptional economic opportunities 

 are discovered on the confines of estab- 

 lished civilizations. 



Societies of the remaining five types are 

 in a measure artificial, in part created by 

 reflection— by conscious planning. They 

 are usually compound, products of con- 

 quest or of federation, and, with few if 

 any exceptions, they are of heterogeneous 

 composition. They are found in the rela- 

 tively bountiful and differentiated environ- 

 ments. 



4. A community of the fourth type con- 

 sists of elements widely unequal in ability ; 

 the strong and the weak, the brave and the 

 timorous, exploiters and the exploited — 

 like enough conquerors and the conquered. 

 The social bonds of this community are 

 despotic power and a fear-inspired obedi- 

 ence. The social type is the despotic. 



5. In any community of the fifth type 

 arbitrary power has been established long 

 enough to have identified itself with tradi- 



tion and religion. Accepted as divinely 

 right, it has become authority. Reverence 

 for authority is the social bond, and the 

 social type is, therefore, the authoritative. 



6. Society of the sixth type arises in 

 populations that, like the Italian cities at 

 their worst estate, have suffered disintegra- 

 tion of a preexisting social order. Un- 

 scrupulous adventurers come forward and 

 create relations of personal allegiance by 

 means of bribery, patronage, and prefer- 

 ment. Intrigue and conspiracy are the 

 social bonds. The social type is the con- 

 spirital. 



7. Society of the seventh type is deliber- 

 ately created by agreement. The utility 

 of association has been perceived, and a 

 compact of cooperation is entered into for 

 the promotion of the general welfare. 

 Such was the Achsean League. Such was 

 the League of the Iroquois. Such was 

 the confederation of American common- 

 wealths in 1778. The social bond is a 

 covenant or contract. The social +ype is 

 the contractual. 



8. Society of the eighth type exists where 

 a population collectively responds to cer- 

 tain great ideals, that, by united efforts, it 

 strives to realize. Comprehension of mind 

 by mind, confidence, fidelity and an altru- 

 istic spirit of social service, are the social 

 bonds. The social type is the idealistic. 



Of these varieties of society the higher, 

 compound communities, or commonwealths, 

 may, and usually do, include examples of 

 the lower types, among their component 

 groups. 



All of these eight types, and the instinct- 

 ive type exhibited by animal bands, have 

 been observed from the earliest times and 

 have suggested to social philosophers as 

 many different theories of the nature of 

 society. Thus in the totemistic lore of 

 savagery we find endless suggestions of an 

 instinct theory. In the mythologies of 

 tribally organized barbarians we find sym- 



