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SCIENCE. 



[Vol. XII. No. 305 



tion, he cannot sustain himself by soaring alone ; but, if it equals 

 or exceeds that loss, he can sustain himself indefinitely. 



After a discussion of various qualifying factors, it was stated 

 that when the orbit of the bird is circular, and lies in an inclined 

 plane rising toward the wind, and when the horizontal velocity of 

 the air diminishes uniformly from the highest point to the lowest 

 point of the orbit, the velocity gained by the bird in making the 

 circuit is equal to the differential velocity of the highest and lowest 



layers of air traversed, multiplied by — into the cosine of the angle 



of inclination of the plane of the orbit. 



It was especially insisted that the theory does not propose to 

 make something out of nothing, but appeals to a transformation of 

 existing energy. " The differential motion of air-currents is a true 

 store of solar energy, and the circling of the bird through the two 

 currents enables him to draw on that store. The process is essen- 

 tially homologous with the utilization of the relative motion of air 

 and ocean for the sailing of a ship, and with the turning of a mill 

 or the frying of a kite by means of the relative motions of air and 

 ground or of air and boy ; only in the case of the bird the appara- 

 tus is not in continuous contact with both members of the motive 

 couple, but passes to and fro between them. The function of the 

 kite-string is performed by the inertia of the moving bird." 



It is evident, that, if this explanation is sufficient, soaring is im- 

 possible without differential motions of air, and is therefore im- 

 possible when the air has no motion ; if it is sufficient, the circling 

 of soaring birds is not merely habitual, but necessary ; and if it is 

 sufficient, observation should show that their circles are higher on 

 one side than on the other. 



Human Beasts of Burden. 



Prof. Otis T. Mason has been many years engaged in the collec- 

 tion of material for a monograph or book upon the subject given 

 above, and now has, systematically arranged, descriptions of sev- 

 eral hundred different modes by which human beings, in civilized 

 and savage countries, make themselves the vehicles for the trans- 

 portation of burdens. Each of these he has had illustrated by a 

 drawing, so that the whole is not only of the highest ethnologic 

 value, but will be exceedingly interesting to the non-scientific 

 reader. 



At the last meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washing- 

 ton, Professor Mason read a paper in which he described some of 

 the more common ways in which man has made himself a beast of 

 burden. The brief abstract given here presents some of the more 

 salient parts of the paper. 



In his prefatory remarks. Professor Mason explained that this 

 was a subject that had awakened his deepest interest, and that the 

 paper he presented was but an introduction to other researches by 

 means of which he proposed to fully investigate and demonstrate 

 the growth of commerce as carried on through the agency of the 

 human body. That the aboriginal inhabitants performed great 

 feats in the way of transporting materials is shown by the co-exist- 

 ence of raw copper on the shores of Lake Superior, and manufac- 

 tured copper implements in the remains of the mound and cave 

 dwellings in the southern part of the country. The same thing is 

 true of the presence of wrought jade, which is found in China and 

 in the Swiss lake-dwellings. Men and women were the first beasts 

 of burden, and it is undoubtedly true that all aboriginal carrj'ing 

 was done on their heads and backs. 



Even the improved state of civilized society has not extinguished 

 all traces of this, for human carriers are still numerous. Hod-car- 

 riers have but recently, and indeed but partially, been superseded 

 by elevating machines. The great progress of the time has been 

 such, continued Professor Mason, that no one walks nowadays un- 

 less it is a preferred exercise : horses, steam, and electricity lend 

 their aid to whirl people to their destinations. It is considered 

 vulgar to carry a parcel : the humblest servant-girl, buying a few 

 cents' worth, may have her purchase taken home in a special-deliv- 

 ery wagon covered with forty coats of lacquer. It has been calcu- 

 lated that two million tons are constantly worn by the human race 

 in the way of dress and ornament. 



The paper then enumerated the various methods by which the 

 various beasts of burden perform their carrying-tasks ; first of all. 



the hand, — the right hand. In speaking of this. Professor Mason 

 said that he has examined a great number of savage implements 

 designed to be carried in the hand, and that the proportion of those 

 shaped for use by the left hand was not greater than I to 50. In 

 no case did he find a left-hand female implement. Then both 

 hands are used, after which the fingers come into play. As an 

 illustration of the use of the fingers in carrying. Professor Mason 

 mentioned the summer-resort waiter, who bears his tray aloft on 

 three fingers. The baldric is next in order, slung over the shoulder 

 by a strap, and hanging on the hip. In this way hunters carry 

 game, and travellers carry small satchels. Then, still progressing, 

 goods to be carried are hung to a belt. Hanging things on the 

 arm may be called the retail method of carrying, and is used by 

 farm-hands, servants, porters ; in fact, by a large proportion of the 

 people we meet in any place. While a civilized being will twist his 

 form so as to get the load that is hung on his arm supported by his- 

 back, a savage will never be found doing so. Next comes the hang- 

 ing over the shoulder, of which a good example is the universal sack 

 of the negro vagabond, containing unclaimed property and other 

 people's chickens. This method is used by grain-porters and hod- 

 carriers. 



The Oriental porters carry almost exclusively on their shoulders. 

 A cooly's average load is a hundred pounds, with which he can. 

 make thirty miles a day. It is estimated that there are a million 

 tons of material moved by coolies in China each day. Then both 

 shoulders come into use, the load being placed round the neck ; 

 after which an easy progression is to the back, which is the natural 

 carrying-place of the burden. The soldier, carrying his knapsack 

 and rations, is a good example. Then loads are carried on the 

 heads, — a process called ' toting.' The negro is a domestic exam- 

 ple, and dairy-maids are reputed to carry their milk-pails on their 

 heads, and there are many other illustrations of this mode of trans- 

 portation. Certain tribes of Indians wear straw rings on their 

 heads to aid in bearing and balancing these great loads. Pockets, 

 remarked Professor Mason, are scarcely worth mentioning as a civ- 

 ilized means of transportation, although the flowing robes of a Chi- 

 naman are capable of concealing at least half a bushel of playing- 

 cards, — a capacity that deserves passing notice. 



The carrying-power given by these various modes is augmented 

 by means of combinations of men, in illustration of which the vast 

 works in Egypt and other Eastern countries were cited. Men alsc> 

 carry goods by traction ; that is, by drawing over the ground. 

 First the arm alone is used, then a line is fastened to the object 

 and to the person. It is held in the hand over the shoulder, or 

 wound over the waist or over a pole. The hunter drawing home 

 his game is a primitive example of this means of carrying. Throw- 

 ing is sometimes resorted to as a mode of transportation, of which 

 the negro method of handling watermelons by tossing them from 

 hand to hand is a fair example. Dirt and excavated material were 

 at first carried in sacks, which have been superseded by shovels. 

 The great necessities and thp differentiating processes of civiliza- 

 tion for rapid and safe transportation give rise to the professional 

 carriers, among whom may be mentioned carriers, messengers, 

 mail-men, and pedlers. For much of this excellent abstract. Science- 

 is indebted to the Washington Eve7izng Star. 



A Queer Game among the Navajo. 



' Navajo Gambling Songs ' was the title of a paper read by Dr. 

 Washington Matthews at the last meeting of the Anthropological 

 Society of Washington. 



The Navajo Indians, he said, have numerous songs, many of 

 which are sung during the progress of a gambling game called 

 ' kesichay ' (this spelling. Dr. Matthews afterward explained, will 

 suffice). The game is founded on a myth which forms one of the 

 traditional beliefs of the Navajo. The songs used in this game are 

 almost numberless ; and one old man of whom the doctor asked 

 the number, said, with an intended exaggeration, that there were 

 over four thousand in the game. Another said that there was a 

 song for every bird that flies, every animal that crawls or prowls. 



The game is sacred, and is usually played in winter, and always 

 in the dark hours. When asked why the night should be selected 

 for the game, one Indian remarked that " he on whom the sun 

 shines while playing the kesichay will be stricken blind." The 



