io6 



SCIENCE. 



[Vol. XV. Nc. 36;-, 



nomenclature by dispensinK with the degrees of bachelor of 

 letters and of philosophy; we could carry to full graduation 

 some who now pursue partial courses of study ; we could 

 obviate criticisms, which proceed not always from so-called 

 "practical" men, but often from persons abundantly qualified- 

 to form an opinion, — graduates, not rarely, of our own 

 institutions. 



"But while this additional freedom may wisely be conceded," 

 the speaker went on to say, "it is of the last importance that 

 we insist upon those fundamental subjects which any rational 

 theory of a liberal education must include. President Gilman 

 enumerates these as follows: 'It is essential that the candidate 

 who receives that degree should have received much instruction 

 in (a) ancient and niodern languages and literature, (&) in 

 mathematics, (c) in the natural and physical sciences, (d) in 

 historical and moral sciences.' I need not stop to show why 

 these four classes of subjects are essential: we are not likely 

 to disagree about that. Experience has shown, what one's 

 knowledge of human nature would lead one to expect, that 

 young men. left wholly to themselves, will not apportion their 

 time equitably between these different interests. 



' 'Professor West of Princeton took the trouble, three or four 

 years ago, to summarize the choices of elective studies made 

 by members of a recent class at one of our leading colleges. A 

 more careful administration of the system probably prevents, 

 at the present time, such extreme abuse of liberty ; yet these 

 facts are instructive as an illustration of a danger against 

 which we need to guard. The first man in standing omitted 

 two of the classes of subjects named by President Gilman, 

 taking no course in -mathematics or in science. The second 

 omitted nearly three, taking no course in mathematics, in 

 science (except botany) , in philosophy, history, or political 

 science. The third took no science and no philosophy. The 

 fourth took no course in philosophy, history, political science, 

 classics, modern languages. How can we consider a man 

 liberally educated who has studied, during his collegiate resi- 

 dence, no modern language, no ancient language, no logic,, 

 psychology, or ethics, no history, no political or social science? 

 Omissions of like significance occur in the case of each of the 

 ten highest men, while the men at the bottom of the class show 

 a marked inclination to the easiest subjects. We cannot plead 

 the example of the German universities, for we have no such 

 preliminary training as the German gymnasia afford. It is 

 obvious that unrestricted liberty of election cannot be per- 

 mitted. No degradation of the baccalaureate degree is com- 

 parable to that which would come from the general adoption of 

 such a system in our colleges. The degree has at present an 

 approximate uniformity of meaning. This would speedily and 

 totally disappear." 



The suggestions which Professor Griffin offered, on the basis 

 of President Gilman' s paper, are these: — 



1. Diminish the evils growing out of the number of our 

 colleges, and the inferiority of some of them, through an agree- 

 ment among the strongest and best, which would have the 

 force of an authoritative example. 



3. Distinguish sharply between the technical and the bacca- 

 laureate degrees, reducing the latter to one, or, at most, two 

 forms. 



3. Relax the requirement in regard to Greek, accepting one 

 ancient language as sufficient for the bachelor of arts degree. 



4. Allow no elections on the part of students that will pre- 

 vent a suitable distribution of attention between the four great 

 groups of subjects which have been named. 



HEALTH MATTERS. 

 The R61e of Potable Waters in the Etiology of Typhoid- 

 Fever. 



There has long been a consensus of medical opinion as to 

 the role of drinking-water in the causation of typhoid, and 

 facts to prove an etiological relation are accumulating every year. 

 According to the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, Vaillard 



has made a communication to the Societe Medicale des. 

 Hopitaux, in which he furnishes new bacteriological piroofs. 



1. In March, 1889, there broke out in the regiment of cavalry 

 quartered at Melun an epidemic of typhoid-fever, but only one 

 squadron was affected. This squadron made use of the water 

 of a particular well which had been contaminated in some 

 unknown way. Repeated examinations of samples of this 

 water revealed the presence of the bacillus typhosus. 



2. At Cherbourg there was an epidemic of enteric -fever, 

 affecting particularly a military company. The water-supply 

 of this part of the city had been contaminated by typhoid- 

 dejections in a manner easily explicable, and samples of this 

 water showed the bacillus typhos:i(S in abundance. 



3. Similar facts were noted with regard to epidemics which, 

 prevailed last year and the year before at Miranda, at Bourg-en- 

 Bresse, and at Chatellerault. 



M. Vaillard's method of identifying the typhoid bacillu& 

 seems to have been in accordance with the most approved data 

 of bacteriological science. 



At the same meeting, Chantemesse stated some facts of 

 interest respecting the influence of Seine water on the preva- 

 lence of typhoid epidemics. It was remarkable, that when- 

 ever, from accident happening to the reservoirs or mains of the- 

 other water sources, the water of the Seine was distributed to 

 the various departments and drank by the inhabitants or the 

 soldiery, an epidemic of typhoid appeared. 



This statement was corroborated by M. Schneider at a meet- 

 ing of the Societe de Medecine Publique, Dec. 27, 1889, who 

 also showed, by facts that had come under his own observation' 

 as military surgeon, that the use of Seine water for drinking, 

 had repeatedly been followed by epidemics of enteric-fever.. 

 Such an epidemic has recently prevailed in the barracks of Paris,,, 

 owing to the temporary shuttingroff of the water of the Vanne^ 

 which seems to be of exceptional purity. 



The Grippe and Cholera. 



Fears having been expressed as to a possible connection be- 

 tween influenza and cholera epidemics. Dr. Smolenski publishes, 

 in the Russian Official Messenger, an elaborate report upon the 

 subject. He points out that the suspicion is not new, and that ia 

 1837 it was discussed by Gluge ("Die Influenza"), and refuted.. 

 In fact, influenza or grippe epidemics have been known in Eu- 

 rope since 1173, that is, for more than seven hundred years; while; 

 the first cholera epidemic appeared in Europe in 1823, but didl 

 not spread that time fai-ther than Astrakhan. Six years later it 

 broke out in Orenburg; next year, in Caucasia and Astrakhan! 

 again, whence it spread over Russia, and in 1831 reached westerm 

 Europe. As a rule, influenza spreads very rapidly ; and at St.. 

 Petereburg in 1782, says Nature, no fewer than forty thousand! 

 persons fell ill of it on the same day (Jan. 14) . In 1833 itsi 

 progress was also very I'apid, and within a few days it appeared! 

 at places so far apart as Moscow, Odessa, Alexandria, and Paris s 

 while cholera epidemics are usually slow in their migrations-, 

 from one place to another. Moreover, influenza is chiefly a 

 winter epidemic, while cholera prefers the spring and the sum.- 

 mer. 



Dr. Smolenski has further' tabulated all influenza and choleras, 

 epidemics which have broken out in the course of this century ini 

 Europe ; and he comes to the following results : influenza broke; 

 out in 1816 in Iceland; 1827, in Russia and Siberia; 1830-33„ 

 in Europe generally; 1836-37, in Europe; 1838, in Iceland s 

 1841-48 and 1850-51, in Europe; 1853, in the Fai'oe Islands;; 

 1854-55 and 1857-58, in Europe; 1856, in Iceland and the Fasoe; 

 Islands ; 1862, Holland and Spain ; 1863-64, France and Swltzeji- 

 land ; 1866, Fi-ance and Great Britain ; 1867, France, Germany^ 

 and Belgium; 1868, Turkey; and 1874-75, western Europe-., 

 As to the cholera epidemics during the same period, they were., 

 1823, Astrakhan and Caucasia (from Persia) ; 1829, Orenburg- 

 (from Turkestan) ; 1830, Russia (from Pei-sia) ; 1831-37, vai-iousj 

 parts of Europe. The next epidemic appeared in 1846 iru Trans.- 

 caucasia (coming from Pei-sia) ; in 1847 it spread over Siberisi 

 and Russia, and in 1848 it was in Europe; in 1849-52 it wasi 

 followed by feeble outbreaks all over Europe. The third chofeiu 



