MAYER: COLOl? AXD COLOR-PATTERNS. 203 



rubi, which are very simihir in appearance to those of Euchelia. 

 The lizards first cautiously examined the larvae, and finally ate them. 

 After this Weismann reintroduced the E. jacobaeae larvae and the 

 lizards were seen to taste tliem, apparently mistaking them for the 

 edible L. rubi caterpillars. 



Poulton ('87) carried out a most careful and well-conducted 

 research upon the protective value of color and markings in insects 

 in reference to their vertebrate enemies. He experimented upon three 

 species of lizards and a tree-frog. Poulton combines his results with 

 those of other observers and presents them in the form of a table, 

 which certainly supports the suggestion of Wallace ('67), that 

 brilliant and conspicuous laiwae would be refused as food by some 

 at least of their enemies. Poulton also shows that a limit to the 

 success of this method of defence (conspicuous larvae having 

 unpleasant taste or smell) would result from the hunger which the 

 success itself tends to produce. In the Tropics, indeed, where 

 insectivorous birds and lizards are far more numerous than with us, 

 and where competition for food is great among them, " we may feel 

 sure that some at least would be sufficiently enterprising to make the 

 best of unj^leasant food, which has at least the advantage of being 

 easily seen and caught." This last suggestion of Poulton certainly 

 seems reasonable ; moreover, it has occurred to me that young birds, 

 being but little skilled in the art of obtaining their food, might quite 

 often be force<l b}" hunger to try various kinds of insects, and per- 

 haps even the Heliconidae themselves. 



Beddard ('9-2, p. 153-167) reports the results of an extensive 

 series of experiments carried out by Mr. Finn and himself upon 

 marmosets, birds, lizards, and toads. He arrives at conclusions which 

 are quite different from those of Poulton and others, but it appears 

 to me that his experiments were by no means so critically performed 

 as those of Poulton. He frequently threw larvae into a cage con- 

 taining many birds and observed them struggle for the prey. It 

 may well be, however, that a bird would be quite vrilling to swallow 

 a very unsavory mouthful in order to prevent any of its com2:)anions 

 from, apparently, enjoying it. However, Beddard found that 

 toads will eat any insect without hesitation in spite of brilliant 

 coloration, strong odors, or stings. He also found that birds and 

 marmosets would often devour "conspicuously colored " larvae with- 

 out any hesitation, and that some "protectively colored " or incon- 

 spicuous larvae were refused. There can be no doubt that many 



