population regulation in mule deer. In undertaking those 

 studies, we also believed it necessary to closely examine and 

 perhaps rethink current knowledge of basic mule deer 

 population biology and ecology. Thus, we did not attempt to 

 test specific hypotheses; nor did we employ the rigid 

 technigues used in much scientific hypothesis testing. 

 Instead, we approached our intensive studies more in the 

 manner of natural historians (Bartholomew 1986, Greene 1986), 

 with some direction but also relying on "serendipitous and 

 unexpected" results (Greene 1986). In taking this approach, 

 we focused heavily on obtaining as complete and detailed data 

 as possible on population ecology. Thus, much depended on our 

 ability to obtain detailed and reasonably accurate data on 

 mule deer population characteristics and trends. 



Beginning in 1975, complete-coverage surveys employing 

 both helicopter and fixed-wing (Piper SuperCub) aircraft were 

 flown during autumn and spring as well as in early winter. 

 From 1976 through 1983, fixed-wing surveys were also conducted 

 in July. During all surveys, numbers, sex, age, group size 

 and composition, location, and other data were recorded for 

 mule deer and most other major species observed. As marked 

 deer became available, observations of those deer also were 

 recorded. 



During summer, autumn, and early winter surveys, deer 

 were classified as fawns (<12 months of age), adult females, 

 yearling males (12-24 months of age), and mature males (>24 

 months of age) . Yearling and mature males were distinguished 

 by gross differences in antler size based on experience in 

 aging and measuring antlers of hunter-killed deer. We did not 

 attempt to distinguish yearling from mature females. Deer 

 were classified only as adult or fawn during spring. 



During 1975-1986, 416 different deer were captured and 

 marked with individually-recognizable neckbands or radio 

 collars. Sixteen of those were recaptured and recollared 

 once, 2 were recaptured and recollared twice. Overall, 202 

 were first captured as newborn fawns, 71 were 6-8 months of 

 age, 119 were adult females, and 24 were adult (>18 month) 

 males. Twenty seven of the newborn fawns (14 males and 13 

 females) and 19 (9 males and 10 females) marked at 6-8 months 

 were offspring of marked does. Ages were assigned to all deer 

 older than newborns on the basis of tooth replacement and wear 

 criteria (Robinette et al. 1957). Other procedures followed 

 in handling deer and recording data have been described by 

 Hamlin et al. (1982) and Riley and Dood (1984). 



Newborn fawns were located from the air and captured by 

 ground crews directed to the site by radio (Riley and Dood 

 1984). One hundred seventy-eight were fitted with 



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