heavy use of fragrant sumac plants. Significant declines in 

 shrub coverage was noted only in mature forested types where 

 overstory coverage had increased. The decline in shrub 

 coverage in these types probably resulted from successional 

 trends rather than overuse by deer or other animals. 



The considerable annual fluctuation in forage production 

 was attributable to annual climatic variation and did not 

 appear to be influenced by deer populations. Long term trends 

 in forage abundance, in addition to being influenced by 

 climate, appeared to be primarily affected by forest 

 maturation and periodic wild fires. 



Land Use 



Prehistorically, the "breaks" apparently were a common 

 hunting area for several Indian tribes; none maintained 

 exclusive use of the area, especially over long periods of 

 time. Overall human use of and impact on the land and 

 wildlife was probably relatively low and intermittent. The 

 journals of Lewis and Clark indicate an abundance of wildlife, 

 including the newly described mule deer, in the vicinity of 

 the study area in 1805. Major influent species, which 

 occurred at that time but not at present, include bison (Bison 

 bison), Audubon bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis auduboni) , 

 grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) , and wolf (Canis lupus). 



Minor numbers of trappers and traders traversed the area 

 from the early 1800s to the 1860s, when the use of steamboats 

 on the Missouri River led to the first major influx of people. 

 "Woodhawks" became established along the river to supply 

 steamboats with wood, and a small "town" existed at a 

 steamboat landing at Rocky Point on the north-central edge of 

 the study area from the 1860s to the turn of the century. 

 Rocky Point served as a rendezvous for a wide variety of 

 people inhabiting the surrounding area. A short-lived attempt 

 to establish a settlement (Carroll) in the northeastern corner 

 of the study area occurred during 1874-1877. 



Domestic livestock grazing, which persists as the major 

 land use, became widespread during the early 1880s when large 

 livestock companies moved cattle, sheep, and horses onto the 

 study area and adjacent breaks and plains. The loss of at 

 least half of all livestock in the area during the severe 

 1886-87 winter reduced total livestock numbers through the 

 1890s. At the same time, large livestock companies were 

 replaced by an increased number of individual ranchers grazing 

 smaller herds. 



The Homestead Acts of 1905 and 1909 led to settlement and 

 attempts to cultivate upland sites over much of the area. 

 Settlement peaked during 1908-1914 and included development of 



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