Figure 20.— Closeup of a contour furrow at Energy 1 mine 

 in Colorado. Ttie furrow is closed off at 24-foot intervals to 

 prevent water from creating a larger watercourse or cfian- 

 nel. The furrow, including ditcfi and castings, averages 

 31 inches wide and about 16 inches deep, and it follows 

 the hillside contour. Furrows have been successfully used 

 to control erosion in the area. November 1978. 



Aldon, 1976; Aldon, 1975 and 1978) has in- 

 vestigated the role of beneficial root fungi 

 (mycorrhizae) in establishing certain woody 

 plants on western mining spoils. Such mycor- 

 rhizae, which could be inoculated directly into 

 the new soil medium or via newly planted stock, 

 aid considerably in the plants' capability to ab- 

 sorb soil nutrients. Seedlings inoculated with 

 mycorrhizae seem to be more drought resistant, 

 to become more quickly established, and to 

 have higher survival rates on poorer sites. 

 Despite the apparent value of inoculation for 

 many plant species, the Forest Service Shrub 

 Laboratory does not routinely inoculate its con- 

 tainerized plants (Robert Ferguson, U.S. Forest 

 Service, oral communication, 1979) because 



fungal inoculation has not reached a practical 

 production stage (Kuja, oral communication, 

 1979; Zak, 1975). Some reclamation plant 

 species can flourish without the deliberate in- 

 troduction of mycorrhizae. At the densest stand 

 of seeded fourwing saltbush seen on raw mine 

 spoils, no mycorrhizal inoculation was used 

 (Grogan, oral communication, 1979) (fig. 30). This 

 stand, however, had been heavily irrigated. Ap- 

 parently the fungal spores can be carried by 

 wind from adjacent areas or can be introduced 

 through topsoiling when it is used. In general, 

 the grass species do not rely as much on mycor- 

 rhizal relationships (Cable, 1977; Kuja, oral com- 

 munication, 1979) as other species and, hence, 

 grasses have proven to be the most adaptable 

 plant family for reclamation. 



Work is also being done to explore the poten- 

 tial role of termites in breaking down raw organic 

 material such as straw mulch, and in improving 

 the physical and chemical charactristics of raw 

 spoil (Ettershank and others, 1978). 



The greatest biological detriment to reclama- 

 tion is overgrazing by domestic livestock 

 (fig. 31). Permitting cattle and sheep into planted 

 areas before they are fully established has to- 

 tally destroyed some plantings (fig. 32) and has 

 greatly weakened others (Schumacher and 

 others, 1977, p. 13). Most coal-mining companies 

 now do not permit grazing on land they are trying 

 to reclaim during the period of mining (table 1). 



Reclamation success is also affected by 

 wildlife. The initial effect of wildlife on revege- 

 tation is loss of seeds and the overbrowsing of 

 young woody plants, particularly where these 

 plants are sparse. Most mine demonstration and 

 test plots that are not fenced are being heavily 

 browsed by wildlife. Berg has indicated (1975, 

 p. 82-83) that where deer and elk are plentiful, 

 revegetation of some species could be difficult 

 because of overbrowsing. Seeded or planted 

 woody species can be protected from over- 

 browsing if they are surrounded by herbaceous 

 vegetation. 



In some areas, heavy degradation by seed- and 

 seedling-eating rodents, rabbits, and birds has 

 retarded reclamation efforts until artificial 

 habitats and perches for predatory species were 

 added. The role and linkage of animal, insect, 

 and bird ecological systems — their food chains, 

 their pollination, and seed dispersion roles- 

 have been poorly addressed in active reclama- 



35 



