piles are then graded, and topsoil or other suit- 

 able growth media are applied. The resulting 

 surface is prepared for planting and is planted 

 during the appropriate season. It may be treated 

 in various ways before or after planting to im- 

 prove germination and plant growth potentials, 

 to reduce erosion, and to improve its water 

 retention characteristics. In many mining oper- 

 ations, after the initial opening of the mine, the 

 plant growth media can usually be placed di- 

 rectly on the graded surfaces without intermedi- 

 ate stockpiling. 



Although the overall approaches to mining 

 and reclamation are similar, local procedures 

 will vary with differences in the attitude of the 

 coalbeds (flat to steeply dipping); the number of 

 individual beds to be mined; the thickness, 

 strength, and mechanical and chemical proper- 

 ties of the materials above and between the coal- 

 beds; and the types of equipment used. The 

 costs of coal recovery and of handling over- 

 burden material directly influence the methods 

 used. The technical aspects related to earth- 

 material handling have reached an advanced 

 state, and computer-assisted planning and deci- 

 sionmaking models are now available (Scott, 

 1978; Gibson and others, 1979). 



The revegetation process, though dependent 

 on climate, the availability of suitable thick- 

 nesses of growing media, and of sources of 

 plant materials, has been extensively researched 

 for western coal surface-mined lands in recent 

 years by the Surface Environment and f\^ining 

 Program^ and other Federal and State govern- 

 ment agencies and universities. In general, the 

 same horticultural principles that are used for 

 successful farming, home gardening, or land- 

 scaping, were found to apply in the revegetation 

 process. 



MINING HISTORY 



Early western coal mines, which date back to 

 the late 1800's, were usually small underground 

 mines that served local markets and railroads. 

 Subsidence has occurred over some of these 

 underground mines creating surfaces that are 

 hazardous and virtually unreclaimable (fig. 2). 



*The Surtace EnvironmenI and Mining Program (SEAM) was established by the 

 U.S. Forest Service In 1973 and given a 5-year mission to develop and apply the 

 most current reclamation and planning technology to western coal mining 

 operations 



The subsidence is more common over mines 

 with less overburden. In North Dakota, for ex- 

 ample, overburdens of 100 feet or less have col- 

 lapsed over several underground mines; those of 

 200 feet or more have not (Trimble, 1979, p. 16). 



Early surface mining was restricted to a few 

 large mines generally adjacent to railroads or 

 powerplants. One of the oldest surface opera- 

 tions is the Rosebud mine at Colstrip, Montana, 

 where mining began in 1924. Some of the sur- 

 face mines in North Dakota are of similar age. 

 The Indian Head mine, for example, began oper- 

 ating in 1929. 



With the increased demand for electric power 

 and low-sulfur coals and with the improvement 

 of surface-mining machinery and transportation 

 equipment (fig. 3), western coal mining began a 

 period of major new development in the late 

 1960's and early 1970's. This boom has con- 

 tinued at a rapid pace, and some new surface 

 mines are excavating the land surface at a high 

 rate (fig. 4). For example, the Navajo mine in 

 northwestern New Mexico disturbed about 4,500 

 acres (more than 7 mi') in 14 years (fig. 5). Envi- 

 ronmental concerns about the reclamation of 

 mined land have intensified as the rate of mining 

 and the number of western surface mines has 

 increased. 



RECLAMATION HISTORY 



Planned reclamation was not required and 

 therefore not practiced in early western mining. 

 Most mines were small and underground, and 

 thus only a few surface acres were disturbed. In 

 some areas, postmining debris such as surface 

 buildings and load-out platforms have been 

 removed by scavengers or land management 

 agencies. 



Only lump coal was marketable in early min- 

 ing days, and the fine materials were sifted or 

 washed out and left at the mine site. At many of 

 these old abandoned underground mines, 

 broken timbers and the coal fines and dust that 

 blacken hillsides near the mine entrances are 

 the major remaining physical indications of past 

 mining. These blackened surfaces absorb 

 enough heat to destroy any germinating seed- 

 lings and are largely devoid of vegetation (fig. 6). 



In the early surface mines the overburden was 

 left as it was excavated, generally in a series of 

 small ridges having steep slopes (figs. 7 and 8), 



