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conditions prevailing at that time and cannot be extrapolated to different locations or ecological systeins 

 (National Research Council 1997). 



Studies show that predation may influence prey populations through changes in recruitment of young into 

 the adult population, adult mortality, or a combination of both (Gasaway et al. 1992, Ballard et al. 1997, 

 National Research Council 1997, Mackie et al. 1998, Kunkel and Pletscher 1999, Ballard et al. 2001). 

 Research also suggests that increased adult female mortality from other sources, such as hunter harvest or 

 elevated overwinter mortality, may create conditions in which predation limits ungulate populations or 

 slows population growth (Kunkel and Pletscher 1999). On the other hand, some biologists reported that 

 habitat and climate influence deer populations more strongly than wolf predation (Wisconsin Department 

 of Natural Resources 1999). And some Minnesota researchers report that wolves do not appear to impact 

 white-tailed deer populations overall, although wolf predation may have more influence in localized areas 

 and especially in conjunction with severe winters (Mech and Nelson 2000, Minnesota Department of 

 Natural Resources 2001 ). The impact of severe winter weather is a concern in the West as well. Recent 

 findings in YNP indicate that winter severity has a dominating influence on wolf predation patterns on elk 

 (Mech etal. 2001). 



Identifying the factors that drive changes in prey populations and predator-prey interactions is extremely 

 difficult. More than one factor is usually involved, and factors may interact with one another to further 

 complicate efforts to understand their importance. FWP's ungulate management attempts to balance 

 population status, habitat condition, landowner tolerance, hunter opportunity, and an array of 

 environmental factors known to influence populations. Ungulate populations are managed in a 

 comprehensive, ecological way, considering the whole environment, not single factors such as wolf 

 predation or lion predation. Documenting predation as a major limiting factor of ungulate populations 

 requires intensive radio telemetry, manipulation of both predator and prey populations, measurement of 

 environmental conditions, a well designed monitoring program, and a sustained long-term effort. 

 Systems with multiple large predators, including wolves, are even more challenging. FWP's current 

 understanding of how ungulates, wolves, other carnivores, and their physical environments interact in 

 Montana will improve with time through monitoring and research, such as the ongoing intensive studies 

 in southwestern Montana and YNP. Management improves as a result. 



Because of their long-term financial investments and willingness to impose hunting regulations to best 

 conserve wildlife, Montanans now enjoy relatively liberal hunting opportunity for more ungulate species 

 than other western states. This is evident in long-term trends in hunter numbers and harvest for both elk 

 and deer (Figures 5-8). Statewide, the number of elk hunters and elk harvest has gradually increased 

 since the 1960s. This reflects the increasing interest in elk hunting as elk populations increased and 

 expanded into formerly elk-free habitats. Long-term trends for deer are more volatile and reflect real 

 changes in deer abundance and corresponding changes in hunter opportunity due to changes in hunting 

 regulations. At the FWP regional scale and the individual hunting district level, the long term trends are 

 more variable. 



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