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16 resulted in minor injuries while six were considered severe. This is in stark contrast to the case 

 histories of mountain lion-human incidents in which mountain lions sometimes appear to perceive 

 humans as prey (Deurbrouck and Miller 200 1 ). Case studies ol injurious bear-human incidents highlight 

 surprise encounters, defense of cubs or food, and/or the bear perceiving the human as a threat to be 

 neutralized (Herrero 1985). 



It appears that wolves can habituate to humans or human activities as readily as bears or mountain lions 

 (Aune 1991, McNay 2002b). Habituation in wolves may not require a consistent pattern of food 

 conditioning, as is often the case for bears. Wolves may increasingly tolerate or even seek out close 

 proximity with people through repeated social interaction with people and where they are "rewarded" in 

 some fashion, whether by acquiring food or novelty items such as shoes. While some time may be 

 required for a wolf to habituate to human proximity, some case histories suggest that it can occur within 

 days of the first encounter (McNay 2002b). Other important variables are whether or not there are food 

 rewards, the frequency of interaction, the individual character of each wolf, the presence of domestic 

 dogs, and whether the wolf is infected with rabies. McNay (2002a) cautioned that the transition from 

 non-aggressive behavior to aggressive behavior in habituated wolves could be rapid and unpredictable. 

 Whether or not habituation escalates to an immediate threat to human safety may hinge on a prompt 

 management response by the appropriate authorities. 



Surprise encounters between wolves and humans may also occur (McNay 2002b). In Montana, hikers 

 have unknowingly encountered an occupied den site and wolves responded by barking. Other encounters 

 occurred away from wolf den sites and ended when the wolf retreated, without injury to human or pet. 

 Reported wolf behavior in these cases was consistent with other case histories reviewed by McNay 

 (2002b). Since the mid-1980s, the only two injuries to humans by wolves in Montana occurred when 

 wolf researchers and managers handled unrestrained animals during capture operations. However, there 

 have been eight mountain lion-human incidents in Montana from 1990-1999 in which seven people were 

 injured and a young boy was killed (FWP unpubl. data). In all of these encounters, the human was not 

 aware of the lion. 



Wolves have injured and killed domestic pets, primarily dogs and llamas in Montana. Most incidents 

 involved guarding or livestock herding dogs, although in some instances, the dog was killed in close 

 proximity to a structure or outbuilding. Other cases of dog depredations were of hunting hounds trailing 

 mountain lion or bobcat scent. Hounds do not typically switch scent trails from felids to canids, but may 

 encounter wolves while pursuing wild cats or at lion kills assumed by wolves. Bangs and Shivik (2001) 

 also noted that wolves probably perceived hunting hounds and guarding/herding dogs as "trespassing" 

 competitors rather than as prey. 



A recent review of wolf attacks on dogs in Finland suggested that wolves could attack domestic dogs 

 either within the context of territorial defense or food acquisition (Kojola and Kuittinen 2002). Territorial 

 defense was most plausible in forested settings and often involved more than one wolf. In most instances, 

 wolves ate the dog upon its death. There are no methods to prevent wolf predation on domestic dogs in 

 hunting situations in which its owner does not directly supervise the dog. Food acquisition was more 

 consistent with single wolves attacking dogs in rural house yards. Preliminary evidence indicated that 

 risk of wolf attacks on dogs might be associated with density of natural prey and the predation efficiency 

 of individual wolves or packs. 



Despite their general wariness of people, wolves will use natural habitats in clo.se proximity to humans 

 and may .sometimes approach very close to buildings or structures. This is particularly true in 

 northwestern Montana where people build their homes in thick, forested habitats. Members of the 

 Murphy Lake pack are occasionally seen within 100 yards of homes and in rare instances closer. While 

 this pack is clearly accustomed to human activity within its home range, its members have shared the 



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