DRAIT EIS APPKNDIX I 



Ultimately, this will yield a mcta-population, capable of genetic exchange across the northern Rocky Mountains 

 (Forbes and Boyd 1996, 1997). 



Boyd and Pletschcr (1999) studied wolf recovery in northwestern Montana from 1979 to 1997. Male wolves 

 dispersed at an average age of 28.7 months and traveled an average of 70 mi from their natal territory before 

 establishing a new territory or joining an existing pack. Females averaged 38.4 months old at dispersal and traveled 

 an average of 48 mi. Males and females, combined, traveled an average of 60 mi (range 10-158 mi). A captured 

 sample of males and females dispersed at rates proportional to their occurrence. There were two peaks of dispersal: 

 January-February (courtship and breeding season) and May-June. 



The Yellowstone Wolf Project documented 36 dispersal events (18 females and 18 males) from 1995-1999 (Smith et 

 al. 2000). Males dispersed an average of 54 mi and females dispersed an average of 40 mi. The longest recorded 

 dispersal of a Yellowstone wolf to date was 221 mi. This Yellowstone-bom male ultimately settled in central Idaho. 



Increasingly, dispersal is being documented among and between all three recover)' areas in the northern Rockies 

 (Bangs et al. 1998, Mack and Laudon 1998, Smith et al. 2000). Combined, there were 21 known dispersal events in 

 2(X)0 and 19 in 1999 (USFWS et al. 2000). Dispersal paths crossed international boundaries, state boundaries, 

 public and private land boundaries, different land uses, and agency jurisdictions. 



Mortality 



Wolves die from a variety of causes, usually classified as either natural or human-caused. Naturally caused 

 mortalities result from territorial conflicts between packs, injuries while hunting prey, old age, disease, starvation, or 

 accidents. In an established Alaskan wolf population largely protected from human-caused mortality, most wolves 

 were killed by other wolves - usually from neighboring packs (Mech et al. 1998). However, in the northem 

 Rockies, natural mortality probably does not regulate populations (USFWS 2000). Humans are the largest cause of 

 wolf mortality and the only cause that can significantly affect populations at recovery levels (USFWS 2000). 

 Human caused mortality includes control actions to resolve conflicts, legal and illegal killings, as well as car/train 

 collisions. 



Pletscher et al. ( 1997) studied survival and mortality patterns of wolves in the GNP area. Total annual survival for 

 this semi-protected population was a relatively high 80%. The survival rate for resident wolves was even higher 

 (84%), but dispcrsers had a 64% chance for survival. Despite the high survival rates, humans accounted for the vast 

 majority of wolf deaths. Of the 43 deaths investigated from 1982-1995, 88% were human-caused (56% legal, 32% 

 illegal). Three wolves died of natural causes and two died of unknown causes. 



More recent mortality data are available from the USFWS et al. (2001). In the Northwest Montana Recovery Area, 

 there were at least 18 mortalities in 2000. Cause of death was known for 15. At least seven wolves were illegally 

 killed, four died in agency control actions, and four wolves died from vehicle /train collisions. In the GYA, at least 

 20 wolves died in 2000, and the cause of death is known for 15. Nine wolves died due to human causes (six control 

 actions, two vehicle collisions, one illegal) and six died from natural causes. Five additional mortalities were 

 documented, but the causes were not readily apparent. These were either classified as unknown or unresolved 

 pending further investigation. In the Central Idaho Recovery Area, 17 human-cau.sed mortalities were documented 

 in 2000. Control actions removed ten. One wolf died of natural causes and tlve more died from unknown causes. 



Genetics 



In recent years, the application of genetic techniques to the study of wildlife populations has permitted managers to 

 address issues of genetic diversity and population viability with increased confidence. These techniques have 

 yielded information relevant to wolf conservation and management in the northem Rockies. Wolf recovery in the 

 northem Rockies advanced from the combination of recolonization of northwestcm Montana by relatively few 

 wolves from Canada and the reintroduction of wolves into YNP and central Idaho. In northwestem Montana, the 

 founding population was small enough that inbreeding among closely related individuals was possible. Fortunately, 

 the genetic variation among the first colonizers was high (Forbes and Boyd 1996). The combination of high genetic 

 variation among colonizers and ongoing natural dispersal to and trom Canadian populations w;is adequate to assure 

 long-term population viability, provided that genetic exchange continued. 



10 



