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Fire exclusion affects all ecosystems, but the most affected are those 

 where fire was a frequent visitor. Ecosystems with frequent fire 

 include low elevation grasslands, shrublands, woodlands, savannas, 

 warm/ dry mixed conifer forests, and short-lived deciduous forests. 



Specifically, the most seriously affected ecosystems in the western 

 states are: juniper woodlands, serai ponderosa pine, giant sequoia, 

 dry mixed conifer, interior dry cool Douglas-fir forests, and aspen 

 patches. 



I view the change in ponderosa pine forests as the most obvious and 

 symbolic of forest health issues. Ponderosa pine is very resistant to 

 surface fires when it is frequently burned, but fire exclusion creates 

 forests with a different mix of species, overcrowding of shade 

 tolerant trees, multi-layered canopies, and accumulated surface 

 organic debris. In these fire deprived forests, even large trees have 

 little or no chance of surviving a wildfire. The forest converts from 

 multi-age pine to even-age Douglas-fir, or to brush. The conversion 

 is highly unstable and may, in some cases, be permanent. 



3. What can and should land managers do to correct this problem? 



First do not generalize the problem. Be specific with respect to the 

 forest area in question. If a decline in forest health is a natural 

 succession event and the natural fire cycle has not been interrupted, 

 then nothing may need to be done. However, if the natural fire cycle 

 has been altered causing a change in species composition, forest 

 structure, and fuel build-up, then the manager should take action or 

 face the inevitable — a large crown consuming wildfire. 



For example, in the dry mixed conifer ponderosa pine forests, 

 depending on the density and composition of the forest, I 

 recommend: 



• the use of prescribe fire (Rx fire), 



• thinning followed by Rx fire, or 



