IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE 157 



The heavy clay and sticky soils of the valley lands can be 

 brought to a higher state of fertility if properly drained. When 

 these soils have an excess of water, they are cold and cannot be 

 worked until late in the spring. Drainage, by making the soil 

 warmer, lengthens the season both for plant growth and for work. 

 It has been observed also that these clay soils when too wet run to- 

 gether and later become dry bakes. This can be easily remedied by 

 good artificial drainage, which makes the operations of tillage easier 

 and, by improving the soil, renders the crops less liable to drought. 



Of the several methods of draining an orchard in vogue at 

 present, underdraining with tile has proved to be the most satisfac- 

 tory. Open ditches are quite common, and good results have been 

 obtained in some places by using wood, stone, brush, cement, or 

 brick for draining the field, but the tile is superior to all of these. 



In the sections of the country where stones are numerous, a 

 system of stone drains may be constructed — a main at one side 

 or through the middle, with laterals every few rods, according to 

 the nature of the land to be drained and the amount of water. It 

 is necessary first to dig ditches having a slight pitch to the bottom, 

 in order to make the water run. Not less than 6 inches to ioo feet 

 would be advisable. Then fill the ditch about one foot deep with 

 small stones about the size of a baseball. Over these place larger 

 stones, and then a layer of brush or coarse weeds. Upon these 

 weeds or brush place the dirt, rounding it slightly. This will make 

 a good cheap drain for a small tract. 



For large areas drain-tile ditches are advisable, with mains of 

 6, 8, or more inches inside diameter, situated at the side of the 

 orchard or at regular intervals through it. For laterals smaller 

 pipe of the 3- or 4-inch size can be used, between 2 and 5 rods 

 apart, according to requirements. Attention must be given to the 

 slope of both laterals and mains, so that the water will be carried 

 off. The depth of the drains is also important. It is usually best 

 to place them at a depth of not less than 3 feet nor more than 

 9 feet. However, soil conditions vary, and a greater depth may 

 sometimes be necessary to meet the problem in hand. 



Many orchards are conspicuous examples of the lack of drain- 

 age ; the trees have more or less dead tops and show a general 

 unhealthy condition, and give little or no satisfactory return. 



