226 



interior and makes it suitable for 

 excavation (McClelland 1977, Mannan et 

 al. 1980, Raphael and While 1984). Short 

 rotation age results in a major reduction 

 of heartrot in second-growth stands since 

 conifers less than 100 years old contain 

 little decay (Kimmey 1956). 



As with deer, the selective harvest of 

 high-volume old growth may signifi- 

 cantly impact several species of birds. 

 For example, in surveys conducted on 

 Admiralty Island, the winter density of 

 hairy woodpeckers (Picoides pubescens) 

 and golden-crowned kinglets (Regutus 

 satrapa) was more than six times greater 

 in high-volume stands than in low- 

 volume old-growth stands (Hughes 

 1985). In a managed forest ecosystem the 

 best way to ensure the availability of 

 habitat for birds associated with old 

 growth is to leave an adequate and 

 sufficiently diverse array of old-growth 

 stands undisturbed (Noble 1978, Franklin 

 et al. 1981, Mannan and Meslow 1984, 

 Hughes 1985). 



Numerous other species also make 

 extensive use of old-growth forests. 

 More than 7(X)0 bald eagles inhabit 

 southeastern Alaska (King et al. 1972), 

 Most nests occur near the coast primarily 

 in large old-growth trees with an average 

 age of more than 400 years (Hodges and 

 Robards 1982). Another species that is 

 associated with old-growth forest is the 

 Vancouver Canada goose (Branta 

 canadensis futva), which nests, rears 

 broods, and forages in old growth, 

 primarily low-volume stands (Lebeda 

 and Ratli 1983). Recent evidence also 

 suggests that the marbled murrelet 

 (Brachyramphus marmoratus), a small 

 seabird, nests in old-growth forests in 

 northern California (Binford et al. 1975), 

 Vancouver Island (Harris 1971), and 

 southeastern Alaska (Quinlan and 

 Hughes unpubl. data). 



A number of furbcarcrs are strongly 

 associated with old-growth habitat 

 including river otter (Lutra canadensis), 

 marten (Maries americana), and mink 

 (Mustela vison) (Johnson 1981, Larsen 

 1983, Woolington 1984, Johnson 1985). 



During winters of deep snow, moose 

 (Alces alces) also use old growth (Doerr 



1983, Hundertmark et al. 1983). In 

 southeastern Alaska, even mountain 

 goats (Oreamnos americanus) use old 

 growth where, during winter, they seek 

 the protective cover of steep forested 

 sites adjacent to cliffs (Schoen and 

 Kirchhoff 1982, Fox 1983, Smith 1985). 



Old-growlh forests also provide 

 important habitat for a variety of fish and 

 aquatic organisms, including several 

 species of salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) 

 that use forest streams for spawning and 

 rearing habitat (Hanman 1982, Mechan 

 el al. 1984). The long-term effects of 

 clearcutting old growth on salmon 

 productivity arc not yet well understood. 



OLD-GROWTH MANAGEMENT: 

 A HOLISTIC APPROACH 



Though it is often convenient to describe 

 old growth as valuable habitat to specific 

 high-profile wildlife species (e.g., Sitka 

 black-tailed deer, northern spotted owl 

 [Sirix occidenlalis caurina]), we also 

 must recognize its importance as a pro- 

 ductive and complex ecosystem. Ecosys- 

 tems are composed of interlinked plant 

 and animal communities. These commu- 

 nities interact within their abiotic envi- 

 ronments in a multitude of ways ranging 

 from interspecific competition and 

 predator-prey relationships to nitrogen 

 fixation and nutrient cycling (see 

 examples in Bormann and Likens 1979, 

 Franklin et al. 1981, Mascr and Trappe 



1984, Norse etal. 1986). 



Maintenance of biological diversity 

 should be a goal of forest management 

 and requires that all the integral parts of 

 the ecosytcm be preserved (Norse et al. 

 1986). Considering the recent initiation 

 of major research efforts and limited data 

 on the functions and processes within 

 old-growlh ecosystems, it is imperative 

 that the remaining old-growlh forests be 

 managed conservatively. 



Timber harvest is characteristically con- 

 centrated on the most accessible and 

 valuable timber stands. This has resulted 



in the significant reduction of certain for- 

 est community types (e.g., high-volume 

 riparian spruce stands) and thus an 

 increase in habitat fragmentation and 

 reduction of biological diversity (Harris 

 1984, Norse et al. 1986). Ecological 

 problems associated with habitat frag- 

 mentation include introduction of unac- 

 ceptable habitat, insularization, vulnera- 

 bility to natural catastrophe, reduction in 

 size of populations, ecological imbal- 

 ances, and negative edge effects (Harris 

 1984, White 1987, Wilcove 1987). 



The theory of island biogeography 

 (MacArthur and Wilson 1967) provides 

 much of the background for the recent 

 concern over habitat fragmentation. 

 Because the Tongass National Forest en- 

 compasses an archipelago consisting of 

 hundreds of islands ranging in size from 

 less than 1 km' to more than 7000 km', 

 habitat fragmentation is an even more 

 significant management concern in 

 southeastem Alaska than in national for- 

 ests elsewhere. 



In southeastem Alaska one approach to 

 ecosystem management would be to 

 identify entire watersheds or large areas 

 with natural boundaries for old-growth 

 retention (Schoen et al. 1984). Habitat 

 protection for an entire watershed will 

 ensure maintenance of the natural distri- 

 bution and juxtaposition of habitat types, 

 minimize habitat fragmentation, and pro- 

 vide habitat requirements for all the 

 indigenous species for which there is, as 

 yet. little or no available data. This 

 approach is in contrast to current man- 

 agement that maximizes fragmentation 

 by allocating habitat retention in small 

 individual forest stands within water- 

 sheds. Generally, large habitat reserves 

 are considered better than smaller more 

 isolated ones (Diamond 1975) and also 

 require less management to maintain 

 existing species and communities (White 

 1987). The result of a watershed 

 approach to old-growih retention is that 

 some watersheds would be allocated pri- 

 marily to timber production while others 

 would be allocated exclusively for pro- 

 duction of fish, wildlife, recreation, and 

 maintenance of biological diversity. 



142 Natural Areas Journal 



Volume 8 (3), 1988 



