364 THE HISTORY OF CEEATION. 



They have barely risen above the lowest stage of transition 

 from man-like apes to ape-like men, a stage which the pro- 

 genitors of the higher human species had already passed 

 through thousands of years ago.** 



Now consider, on the other hand, the highest stages of 

 development of mental life in the higher vertebrate animals, 

 especially birds and mammals. If, as is usually done, we 

 divide the different emotions of the soul into three principal 

 groups — -sensation, will, and thought — we shaU find in 

 regard to every one of them, that the most highly developed 

 birds and mammals are on a level with the lowest human 

 beings, or even decidedly surpass them. The will is as dis- 

 tinctly and strongly developed in higher animals as in men 

 of character. In both cases it is never actually free, but 

 always determined by a causal chain of ideas. (Compare 

 vol. i. p. 237.) In like manner, the different degrees of will, 

 energy, and passion are as variously graduated in higher 

 animals as in man. The affections of the higher animals 

 are not less tender and warm than those of man. The 

 fidelity and devotion of the dog, the maternal love of the 

 lioness, the conjugal love and connubial fidelity of doves 

 and love-birds are proverbial, and might serve as 

 examples to many men. If these virtues are to be called 

 " instincts," then they deserve the same name in mankind. 

 Lastly, with regard to thought, the comparative consider- 

 ation of which doubtless presents the most difficulties, this 

 much may with certainty be inferred — especially from an 

 examination of the comparative psychology of cultivated 

 domestic animals — that the processes of thinking, here 

 follow the same laws as in ourselves. Experiences every- 

 where form the foundation of conceptions, and lead to the 



