V 



Oct. 20, 1855.] 



THE GARDENERS' CHRONICLE 



G95 













of life. Vital affinity entirely supersedes this affinity, 

 and produces new motions of her own, one of the 

 results of which is new products and new compounds. 



" The sap of our supposititious Apple tree thus re- 

 cruited begins to ascend the trunk until it reaches the 

 leaves ; it passes along the vessels, probably also from 

 cell to cell, but most abundantly through the alburnum. 

 A portion of its water is exhaled through the bark, but 

 when it arrives at the leaves a still greater quantity of 

 water is cast off, and also at the surface of the Apples. 

 Another very important change takes place at the leaves, 

 and a large quantity of carbonic acid is taken into the 

 gap from the atmosphere, and oxygen is evolved. This 

 last phenomenon will be considered in Chap. III., on 

 Respiration. The sap, now in a state of full perfection, 

 then flows to all parts of the tree ; to the bulk of it the 

 dextrine supplies its cellulose, and its albumen the albu- 

 minous principles. The dextrine yields chlorophyll to 

 the leaf, wax to the flower, malic acid to the immature 

 Apple, sugar and albumen to the ripe ones, and at a 

 crack in the bark the dextrine is converted into gum. 

 The probable manner in which these transformations 

 take place will fall to be considered in the Chapter on 

 Nutrition. Lastly, the exhausted sap descends the tree 

 to be recruited by fresh supplies at the root. 



** That the above account of the course of the sap and 

 of its supplies is the correct one is certain. That apo- 

 crenate of ammonia and saline substances are taken 

 from the soil by vegetables in ordinary cropping, is now 

 by British chemists nearly unanimously believed. The 

 farmer is continually adding them to his soil, and yet his 

 soil does not increase in quantity. Nay, sometimes 

 when he manages unskilfully and overcrops, he abstracts 

 these so rapidly, that there is not enough of them left 

 to supply the sap of a full crop, and his land becomes 

 'out of heart.' Then while we see that the sap 

 acquires the apocrenate of ammonia, &c, from the soil, 

 we see the vegetable increase in cellulose, albumen, 

 sugar, acids, &c. (all substances that contain the same 

 elements as the apocrenate of ammonia and the like) ; 

 although we cannot understand how it comes about, that 

 in the organism they are arranged differently ; and, 

 further, there is no other source from which the plants 

 can derive these principles that form their bulk save 

 from those indicated. Then, that the leaves take carbonic 

 acid from the atmosphere, give out oxygen, and also 

 water, and that the sap ascends and descends in the 

 manner described, are ail easily demonstrated by actual 

 experiments, all of which will be found described at 

 length in books upon botany. 



" In order that the sap may circulate in plants, both 

 heat and light in considerable intensity must be present. 

 When both these influences are acting strongly, as in 

 spring and summer, the circulation of the sap is per- 

 formed with great force and vigour. If, for example, 

 a Vine (in spring) be cut acrosa, and a piece of bladder 

 tied over the stump, the bladder soon becomes tightly 

 distended by the ascending sap, and ultimately bursts. 



* The causes of the flow of the sap belong to physio- 

 logy, and in a work of this kind can only be hinted at. 

 Organic structures have a peculiar power of contractility 

 upon being touched by various agents or stimulants. 

 Thus, as we shall immediately see, the hollow muscle 

 called the heart of the higher animals when blood enters 

 it contracts, and by force of that contraction propels the 

 blood. Nothing like a heart exists in any vegetable ; 

 but in the highest or vascular plants, such as our Apple 

 tree, the vessels may contract upon their contents and 

 assist in propelling the sap. But their influence in this 

 manner is probably extremely slight, and the move- 

 ments of the gap in the higher plants is nearly, as in the 

 lower it is entirely, dependent upon vital affinities and 

 attractions that exist, between the sap and the various 

 structures of the plant through which it flows. Just as 

 the apocrenate of ammonia, whenever it enters the sap, 

 loses its chemical properties and becomes converted 

 into dextrine and albumen, so this dextrine and albumen 

 is not obedient to the ordinary laws of gravitation, and 

 flows in directions altogether different from those which 

 it would do were it mere dead matter." 



In a similar manner the circulation of the blood in 

 animals is treated of. 



We content ourselves with one more extract on the 

 subject of Brewing :— 



"This process essentially consists in converting the 

 starch of malt into sugar, and then in converting this 

 sugar, and also the sugar that already exists in malt, 

 mto alcohol. The latter of these changes is effected by 

 the catalytic action of modified gluten or yeast, as it is 

 commonly called ; and the former by the diastase. In 

 practice it is necessary not to apply too high a tempera- 

 ture, for fear of converting the starch into dextrine. 



u The first step in the process is to get a solution of 

 sugar. To do this the malt is ground, and successive 

 quantities of water of a temperature of from 157° to 

 160° are poured upon it ; and thelower temperatures 

 Ought to be begun with first. By so acting the sugar is 

 obtained in solution, and then the starch and diastase 

 ^e procured ; and the reason that a higher tempera- 

 ture than 160° is to be avoided, is the fear of converting 

 the Btarch not into sugar, but into dextrine. 



"These processes of infusing the malts are technically 

 called matihings, and various mechanical contrivances 

 **« arranged in the mash tub which do not here con- 

 cern us. 



j When as much sugar as possible has been obtained 

 fryrfhe mashing, the saccharine solution, or wort as it is 

 f*Ued, is boiled for a considerable time ; three purposes 

 P^ug served by the boiling ; 1. The solution is concen- 

 trated, a quantity of water being driven off in vapour ; 



> i 





2. A great portion of the albuminous matter is coagu- • 

 lated, and hence the chance of the beer afterwards 

 running on to the acetous fermentation diminished 

 and, 3. What little starch there is left is converted into 

 dextrine, and a purer solution of sugar obtained. 



" For a long time past it has been usual to add Hops 

 during this boiling process. The common opinion is \ 

 that they prevent the beer from running on into the 

 acetous fermentation ; but this is probably quite without 

 foundation, for beer was made in the country which 

 kept well enough hundreds of years before Hops were 

 introduced. The real action of the Hops is probably 

 to communicate a bitter and aromatic flavour. 



"It is found in practice that the best beer is made 

 when the time that elapses between the boiling and the 

 addition of the yeast to excite fermentation is least. 

 The reason of this probably is, that when the period is 

 long, some of the saccharine and albuminous proximate 

 principles begin to react upon one another. The cooling 

 is generally effected by nieaus of evap« ition, and for 

 this purpose the boiled wort is spread out into shallow 

 coolers, so as to expose as large a surface as possible to 

 the air. As March and October are the two months 

 during which in general evaporation goes on more 

 rapidly than even in colder weather, March and October- 

 made beer have long been famous. 



* The reason that the wort must be cooled before the 

 yeast that is intended to act catalvtically is added, is 

 that yeast is destroyed by a temperature much above 

 85°. A temperature of about 60° seems in general to be 

 preferred. The yeast is then mixed with a quantity of 

 wort, and this mixture next carefully stirred among the 

 whole wort. The structure of yeast is seen in Jig. 140. j 

 It consists of little, apparently vegetable, cells filled with | 

 albuminous matter taken from previous malt, and which 

 in the process of fermentation throw out new cells that 

 fill themselves with albuminous matter contained in the 

 present malt, and at the same time catalytically resolve 

 the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, the latter of 

 which passes off as gas. 



* The fermentation lasts for some days. The greater 

 quantity of the newly formed yeast rises to the surface, 

 aud has a very light appearance, owing to its being 

 permeated with globules of carbonic acid gas. 

 Another portion, however, falls to the bottom of 

 the vessel in which the process is conducted. The 

 fermentation is known to be finished by testing the 

 specific gravity of the fluid, and on the small scale by 

 observing that carbonic acid is no longer given off. 

 When this is the case, the yeast is skimmed off, tiie 

 beer removed from the bottom yeast, and any albumin- 

 ous matter that may still remain among the beer 

 removed by means of isinglass. The beer is then ready 



to be barrelled. 



" It is obvious that any saccharine matter, or any 

 starchy, if diastase be present, is capable of being con- 

 verted into beer, as sugar, Potatoes, raw grain, or a mix- 

 ture of any such with malt. 



* Wine-making in no respects differs in principle from 

 beer-making. The sugar is contained in the ripe juice 

 of the grape, and the ferment in the gluten of the skin. 

 The ferment of Apple also in cider-making is the 

 albuminous principles contained in the Apple. 



Garden Memoranda. 



Mb. Turner s Royal Nursery, Slough.— Since we 



last visited this establishment considerable improve- 

 ments have been effected. Three new houses are now 

 in course of erection, each of which is 49 feet in 

 length, and 11 feet in width. These are for the 

 accommodation of soft-wooded plants, for which they 

 appear to be admirably adapted, being low, well venti- 

 lated at the top, and with Walks up the centre. One 

 boiler placed at the end of the centre house is to heat 

 the three. Two other houses have also been considerably 

 lengthened and several new ranges of pits and frames 

 erected. In forming new frames Mr. Turner takes 

 great care to secure a dry bottom for them, which is 

 -» essential to the well doing of plants in winter. In 



noticed that spacious tanks were constructed underneati 

 the stages, into which all the rain-water falling on the 

 roofs is conveyed by means of gutters and pipes, so that 

 during winter a constant supply of soft water is always 

 at hand, and that too of a temperature nearly similar to 

 that of the house itself. The houses throughout are in 

 excellent condition, most of the glass being quite new, 

 three houses having been reglazed this summer, as well 

 as several ranges of frames, a fact which shows the im- 

 portance attached to good gla*B in an establishment 

 like this, where first-claw cultivation is the object 

 aimed at. In addition to the collections of large 

 flowered and fancy varieties of Pelargonium, varie- 

 gated kinds are largely grown in this nursery, and 

 among them we particularly noticed a new variety 

 named Alma, which may be regarded as a considerable 

 improvement on Flower of the Day, having better 

 foliage and bright scarlet flowers. Shrubby Calceo- 

 larias are also grown here, and among them a row of 

 Purity was in full bloom ; as a bedding variety this is 

 doubtless one of the best, and plants struck during the 

 previous summer are evidently the most desirable for 

 this purpo ; in some cases it would be better, however, 

 to plunge the plants in their pots, so as to prevent an 

 exuberance of growth, and thus ensure an earlier 

 bloom. Mr. Turner intends cultivating this class of 

 plants somewhat largely for conservatory decoration, 

 as he considers them more ornamental than the her- 

 baceous varieties, and they remain longer in bloom. 

 Chrysanthemums, which are grown here in pots as 

 well as in the open ground, will soon be in full flower. 

 Cinerarias have just received a shift, and are in 

 vigorous health. The latter, as we have already 

 observed, are wintered in dry frames, heated by hot- 

 water pipes, led along just inside their frout walla. 



Of Verbenas we observed some still in good condition. 

 Wonderful, a rich plum coloured variety, with a large 

 white centre, was very fine, as was also Tyrian Prince, 

 which appears to be the best purple for bedding. 

 Loveliness, a bright rosy pink kind, is likewise an 

 excellent bedding variety, and Blue Bonnet is the best 

 of its colour for beds we have yet seen. Glory of 

 France has handsome flowers, which are also remarkable 



for fine shape. 



Dahlias were past their best, the heavy rains and 

 cold nights we have lately had having greatly impaired 

 their beauty. Among seedling varieties we noticed 

 Miss Burdett Coutts, a useful shaded buff aud violet 

 flower ; Lollipop, pale buff ; Bessie and Yellow Beauty, 

 two fine varieties of different shades of colour ; and 

 Grand Sultan and Tyrian Prince, two good and dis 



similar dark kinds. 



Pinks, we need scarcely say, are grown here in great 

 quantities, and the plants in the blooming beds are very 

 strong. The beds are elevated fully 9 inches above the 

 paths, so as to avoid a superabundance of moisture iu 

 winter. This plan, we observed, is also practised in 

 the case of Pansy beds, and it is douotless one of great 

 utility, tending, as it must do, to prevent the plants from 



damping off. 



It may be worthy of mention that in one of the new 



houses already adverted to the side shelves were 

 formed ot cross bars of wood covered with slates, over 

 which was placed a layer of cement and coarse 

 sand. On this again was laid another layer of Portland 

 cement. Shelves constructed in this manner have been 

 found to be not only very durable, but to add greatly to 

 the neat appearance of the house. The pathways are 

 also to be formed of Portland cement. 



constructing them the soil is excavated to the depth of 

 15 or 18 inches, not only within the walls, but to a dig- 

 tance of 2 or 3 feet beyond them, and this space is 

 filled up with coarse gravel, at the same time taking care 

 that the bed of the frame is still above the level of 

 the surrounding ground. This is a precaution that 

 cannot be too strongly insisted on, as more plants are 

 killed in winter from the effects of damp than from 

 frost, and it is surprising how great an amount of frost 

 many plants will endure that are supposed to he some- 

 what tender when they are kept dry and free from damp. 

 We observed that in one instance a branch pipe (with 

 stop-cock) from the boiler of one of the houses also 

 heated a range of frames iu which Cinerarias and other 

 plants are here wintered and grown in that manner 

 which otherwise would require the temperature of a 

 greenhouse. Three ranges of frames, consisting of 96 

 lights, are now occupied with Carnations and Pico- 

 tees in small pots, Mr. Turner being a most extensive 

 grower of these plants, having bloomed this season 

 about 2000 pots of them . Pelargoniums are also largely 

 cultivated here, seven houses being devoted to then- 

 growth ; the specimen house is now filled with hue 

 plants in their blooming pots. Pelargoniums, both 

 young plants for sale and' specimens, are encouraged to 

 make as much young wood as possible early in autumn, 

 in order that the plants may ripen it early in spring 

 instead ot having to make it then, and by this means 

 an early and vigorous bloom is insured. J*ot only m 

 the Pelargonium houses, but in all the others we j 



FLORICULTURE. 



National Floricultubal Society.— With the meeting of 

 October 4th the season, as far as florists' flowers are concerned, 

 may be said to have virtually closed, as few more seedlings may 

 now be expected to be exhibited this year, The success which 

 has attended the society's efforts was perhaps most apparent at 

 the meeting of Sept. 20th, when no less than 39 varieties of 

 seedling Dahlias were exhibited, from three to nine blooms of 

 each variety being staged, but it is only fair to state that 

 the whole of the meetings during the season have been very 

 sfactory. On the 20th Sept., cut specimens of variegated 

 Geraniums were exhibited by Mr. Kinghorn; of these the best 

 was General Pelissier, a variety in the way of Commander-m- 

 Chi, f, but very much better, and as a bedding plant, a valuable 

 acquisition. Of the following seedling Dahlias, it was decided 

 that they maintained the character previously given to them 

 when they obtained certificates, viz. r— Enchantress (Alexander) 

 a striped" fancy variety; Bessie, a full-sized yellow: Lollipop, 

 a very constant and fine fawn-coloured variety; Miss Burdett 

 Coutts, shaded salmon, and very constant ; Mrs. W heeler, a first- 

 rate crimson scarlet ; and Reginald, primrose, slightly tipped 

 with purple. A First Class Certificate was awarded to Mr. 

 Keynes for Orange Perfection, a shaded orange flower of beauti- 

 ful outline and smooth petal. Mr. Turner received a Certificate 

 of Merit for Duchess of Wellington, soft creamy French white, 

 very double, full, and of good outline and close high centre. This 

 is a novel flower, and a great acquisition. Six blooms each were 

 shown of the above two flowers. Mr. Turner also received a Cer- 

 tificate of Merit for Grand Sultan, dark maroon, approaching to 

 black, a desirable kind. Mr. Rawlings received a Certifi- 

 cate of Merit tor Chameleon, yellow, occasionally tinged on 

 the edges of the petals, and a full-sized flower. Mr. Wheeler, of 

 Warminster, sent Eclipse, a medium-sized dark purple flower, 

 having a close high centre; and Lady Raglan, a buff kind, but as 

 shown, too much open in the petal. Colonel Eyres, of Thurlston, 

 Surrey, sent three blooms of a light purple, a very round high- 

 cent red flower, with small stout petal*, but rather small. The 

 1st prize for 12 Dahlias was awarded to Mr. Turner, for Robert 

 Bruce, Yellow Beauty, Pre-eminent, Empress, Lord Bath, Sir C. 

 Napier, Rachel Rawlings, Espartero, Lollipop, Bessie, Miss Spears, 

 and Annie; 2d, Mr. Keynes, with Pre-eminent, Duchess of Kent, 

 Lord Bath, Goldsmith, Due tche, Rachel Rawlings, Robert Bnice, 

 Essex Triumph, Salvator Rosa, Triumphant, Annie, and Ruby 

 Queen. Both these stand* consisted of fl-.iwers fine in quality. 

 Six Fancy Dahlias : 1st, Mr. Turner, with Empereur de Maroc, 

 Triomphe de Roubaix, Gloire de K*in, Admiration, Mora 

 Mlvor, and Baron Ah on ; 2d, Mr. Keynes, with Baron Alder- 

 son, Triomphe de Roiibaix, Gloire de Kan Elizabeth, r 



nd Pieeon; 3d. Mr. Robinson. A stand of six splendid blooms 





