372 GERMANY. 



Courts of Justice. 



Formerly every state of Germany — nay, in many parts, every province — liad 

 its own code of law. To a large extent this is still true, although a new Penal 

 Code and a Commercial Code have acquired force throughout the empire, and the 

 Courts of Justice have been reorganized on a common basis. The judicial organ- 

 ization of Germany is determined by a law promulgated on the 27th of Januarv, 

 1877. This law suppresses all manorial courts, limits the jurisdiction of ecclesias- 

 tical courts to questions of religion, and provides for the independence of the judges. 

 For civil cases there are Amtsgcrichte (of one judge), Landgerkhte (with a bench 

 of three judges, or of one judge and two merchants), OherhoidesgericJite (with five 

 judges), and a Heichsgerie/d, or Supreme Court of Justice at Leipzig. Offences 

 and misdemeanours are adjudged by the Amtrichfer, assisted by two Schôjfen 

 elected by the people ; more serious offences by the Criminal Chamber of the 

 Landgerichte (with a bench of five judges), or crimes by the same courts, with the 

 co-operation of a jury ; whilst all cases of high treason are reserved for the 

 Supreme Court. Appeals may, as a rule, be brought before one of the superior 

 courts. The judges, with the exception of those of the Supreme Court, are 

 appointed by the State Governments. 



Army and Navy. 



" War," said Mirabeau, " is the national industry of Prussia." This was true 

 in the century of Frederick IL, and in a certain measure it is so still. Military 

 service is compulsory throughout Germany — princes, priests, and candidates of 

 theology being exempted, though actually all men under 5 feet 2 inches, as well 

 as a large number of others not required for filling up the ranks, are annually 

 "put back" into the reserve. On an average only one-third of the available 

 number of recruits is embodied. The term of service is three years with the 

 colours, four years in the reserve, and five years in the Landicchr. The Land- 

 stnrm includes all men capable of bearing arms, and not belonging to the regular 

 army, up to the age of forty-two. 



Young men of education may enter the army as " volunteers " on the com- 

 pletion of their seventeenth year, provided they find their own uniform and rations. 

 Many of these volunteers attend the university lectures during their term of 

 service. Those amongst them who are able to pass an examination on their 

 discharge are appointed " ofiicers of reserve." Professional ofiicers, whether 

 educated in one of the schools of cadets or elsewhere, only receive commissions if 

 unanimously declared worthy by their future comrades. There are special schools 

 for officers of artillery and engineers, as well as a War Academy for the training 

 of staff officers. 



The Guard is recruited throughout the empire, but every other unit of the army 



