studies, the monitoring team would ideally be the during research team, for the benefit of 

 the operation and longer range research. Monitoring could and should be used much more. 

 6. Ecological Effects of Deposition of Fill (Nourishment) on Sand Beaches. Here the 

 focus changes from offshore dredge sites to beaches where dredged material is deposited 

 for beach restoration of nourishment. The same general ecological cycles and 

 progressions— from the primary producers through the upper order carnivores, with 

 bacterial breakdowns and replenishments of nutrients such as phosphates and 

 nitrates— take place on the beaches as well as offshore, though details may differ. 



Before considering the effects of depositing fill on the beaches, the normal ecosystem 

 should be considered. Many studies of the general features of beach life have been made, 

 beginning with the classic work of Pearse, et al., (1942) on North Carolina beaches and 

 continuing through Dexter (1967, 1969a, and 1969b) and Trevallion, et al., (1970). 

 Trevallion, et al., provide an excellent review of research, a comprehensive bibliography, 

 and a comparison of world-wide beach features. 



The beach surface presents a harsh environment. Temperature of the sand on a hot 

 sunny day may be extremely high, but less than an inch below the surface, the temperature 

 is lower and more conducive to life. Thus, most permanent residents of the upper parts of 

 the beach are burrowers, and come out primarily at night. As in most harsh environments, 

 the fauna and flora are limited in number of species, often in number of individuals, and 

 the inhabitants include .many examples of extreme adaptation to a specialized way of life. 

 The beach not only has a harsh temperature environment, but also is constantly shifting 

 and changing character which makes permanent residence difficult without special 

 adaptations. Present are: blowing sand, bright sun, winds and rains, wave action, and 

 predation from within the beach, from the sea, and from the dunes. The food chain is 

 long— from bacteria through the usual marine categories, principally algae, crustaceans, 

 mollusks, annelids, and echinoderms, and also including reptiles (lizards and snakes), birds, 

 and man. Man, however, interferes little with normal workings of the beach community; he 

 occupies the surface when most community members are not likely to be abroad. 



For convenience, the beach environment is divided into component zones or parts, each 

 with its own principal faunal and floral components. Dunes are not included. 



a. Beach Zoning. Trevallion, et al., (1970), provide a scheme of zoning well suited 

 for beach discussion and for further beach research. On the basis of fauna, they divide the 

 beach into upper, middle, and lower zones, recognizing that there is a mobile element of 

 the beach population not restricted to any zone. They state that there is amazing 

 world-wide similarity in the faunal types occupying these zones. 



The upper zone is characterized by populations of ghost crabs (Ocypode) and sand fleas 

 or amphipods (Talitridae). This zone, dry except in storms, is backed by the dune areas, 

 and reaches slightly above the waterline. In addition to crabs and amphipods, predatory 

 and scavenger beetles and other transient animals are found in the upper zone. Typical 

 inhabitants are high-order predators. Plants are scarce or absent, and this zone is dependent 

 for production on lower zones or the dune areas. Wrack along the debris line provides some 



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