In October 1963, the worst storm in the memory of the Eskimo people 

 occurred over an ice-free part of the Arctic Ocean, attacking the coast near 

 Barrow, Alaska (Hume and Schalk, 1967). Detailed measurements of some of the 

 key coastal areas had been made just before the storm. Freezeup just after 

 the storm preserved the changes to the beach until surveys could be made the 

 following July. Most of the beaches accreted 0.3 to 0.6 meter (1 to 2 feet), 

 although Point Barrow was turned into an island. According to Hume and 

 Schalk, "The storm of 1963 would appear to have added to the Point the 

 sediment of at least 20 years of normal longshore transport." Because of the 

 low-energy wave climate and the short season in which littoral processes can 

 occur at Barrow, this storm significantly modified the beach. 



A study of two hurricanes, Carla in 1961 and Cindy in 1963, was made by 

 Hayes (1967a). He concluded that "the importance of catastrophic storms as 

 sediment movers cannot be over-emphasized" and observed that, in low-energy 

 wave climates, most of the total energy is expended in the nearshore zone as a 

 series of catastrophies. In this region, however, the rare "extreme" 

 hurricane is probably not as significant in making net changes as the more 

 frequent moderate hurricanes. 



Surprisingly, Hurricane Camille, with maximum winds of 322 kilometers per 

 hour (200 miles per hour), did not cause significant changes to the beaches of 

 Mississippi and Louisiana. Tanner (1970) estimated that the sand transport 

 along the beach appeared to have been an amount equal to less than a year's 

 amount under ordinary conditions and theorized that "the particular configura- 

 tion of beach, sea wall, and coastal ridge tended to suppress large scale 

 transport." 



Hurricane Audrey struck the western coast of Louisiana in June 1957. The 

 changes to the beach during the storm were neither extreme nor permanent. 

 However, the storm exposed marsh sediments in areas where sand was deficient 

 and "set the stage for a period of rapid shoreline retreat following the 

 storm" (Morgan, Nichols, and Wright, 1958). Indirectly, the storm was 

 responsible for significant geomorphic change. 



A hurricane (unnamed) coincided with spring tide on the New England coast 

 on 21 September 1938. Property damage and loss of life were both high. A 

 storm of this magnitude was estimated to occur about once every 150 years. A 

 study of the beach changes along a 19-kilometer (12-mile) section of the Rhode 

 Island coast (Nichol and Marsten, 1939) showed that most of the changes in the 

 beach profile were temporary. The net result was some cliff erosion and a 

 slight retrogression of the beaches. However, the same hurricane resulted in 

 major changes to the south shore of Long Island (Howard, 1939). A total of 

 eight inlets were opened through the barrier island, and three into closed- 

 mouthed bays. This included the opening of the present-day Shinnecock Inlet 

 and the widening of Mariches Inlet. 



Beach changes from Hurricane Donna which hit Florida in September 1960 

 were more severe and permanent. In a study of the southwestern coast of 

 Florida before and after the storm. Tanner (1961) concluded that "Hurricane 

 Donna appears to have done 100 years' work, considering the typical energy 

 level thought to prevail in the area." 



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