366 the president's address. 



shake off' the influence of great leading families to the extent to which 

 this was done in some parts of Greece. Rome was, however, freer than 

 Carthage, and accordingly we find that, while in Carthage there was 

 little intellectual activity, apart from trade, in Rome there was some, 

 and in Athens a great deal. 



The most interesting part of history is that which throws light 

 upon the ideas and influences that have borne sway over the minds 

 of men. If we could gain a complete knowledge of these, we should 

 easily be able to construct a philosophy of history, for the great move- 

 ments of every age are due to these springs. The deed always exists 

 in thought before it becomes fact ; and, though it would not be correct 

 to say that humanity is conscious of the influences that sway it at 

 any particular time, yet it is true that the historical facts of the next 

 generation have now an immaterial, but no less real existence, in the 

 tendencies of the modes of thinking, feeling, and acting of the pre- 

 sent. Buckle has said that Shakspere helped much to make New- 

 ton. I think that true, and I think that Newton has in his turn ex- 

 ercised an influence on literature. To Newton, had he been born 

 earlier, both the antecedent discoveries necessary to enable him to 

 perform the work that he did, and the stimulus to do this work, would 

 have been alike wanting. There were undoubtedly very many men 

 of great ability in the middle ages ; but not one of tbem in any way 

 materially advanced physical science during that period of a thousand 

 •or more years. 



There was, in fact, other work to be done in those times. Out of 

 the disorganization resulting from the break-up of the Western Roman 

 Empire, a new polity was to be developed. New common interests 

 were to be created to bind together the various races and to override 

 the differences which separated them. The history of Western Europe 

 has since that time been increasingly one. In every period since then, 

 and now more than ever, every important internal change in one of 

 the civilized European states is found to affect the rest. In the middle 

 ages, indeed, all Western and Central Europe tended, more and more, 

 to become, and finally became one community, at the head of which 

 was the Pope ; and, though his religious headship has long since 

 ceased to be recognized by some of the states, and Russia has forced 

 her way into the circle, there is still a real oneness of civilization and 

 interests. This oneness comes out in a remarkable manner when we 

 consider the general movement of events in modern times, and this it 



