92 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BIOLOGY 



Organization. — With differentiation, specialization, and division 

 of labor there is always organization. This is true of an animal or plant 

 whether composed of only a single cell, or of many cells. In such a living 

 thing the separate parts are organized into a whole. This whole is the 

 organism. It may be simple or complex, small or large, but to be an 

 organism it must be capable of maintaining itself. Its parts live and 

 grow and even increase their kind while in connection with the whole, 

 but these parts cannot maintain a separate existence.^ 



Analogy From Industrial Organization. — The relations of the parts 

 of some animal organizations to the whole will be made clear by an anal- 

 ogy drawn from the field of industry. At the beginning of an enterprise 

 a man usually carries on the whole business alone. In the conduct of 

 the business he combines in one person the functions of producer, seller, 

 buyer, and executive. As the volume of the business increases the indi- 

 vidual associates with himself another who shares these duties. With 

 the passage of time the business grows and the partnership becomes a 

 company hiring many helpers, and finally it becomes a corporation the 

 conduct of whose affairs requires the combined efforts of many people, 

 each person performing a certain kind of work, perhaps at the forge, 

 lathe, or saw, or as foreman, factory superintendent, sales manager, or 

 clerk. There may, in fact, be whole groups of people, each group doing 

 the same kind of work. All these form a complex organization of indi- 

 viduals all working not only as individuals with certain ideas regarding 

 profit to themselves but as members of an association working toward the 

 accomplishment of a common end. The groups in turn perform dut^ 

 and create products which bear certain relations to the functions or 

 business of the corporation. The output is therefore the result of the 

 coordinated efforts of many individuals. The corporation is a complex 

 organization for a community of effort. It is the sum of its parts, that is, 

 executive force, sales force, factory, and so on. The executive cannot 

 maintain the proper function of the corporation without the rest of the 

 organization, nor can the individual laborer perform his function which 

 may be a single operation, the shaping of a single piece, apart from the 

 organization. Specialization and division of labor in such an organization 

 has been carried to a high degree of perfection. Among men the develop- 

 ment of any particular corporation is likely to proceed gradually as indi- 

 cated above. Thus it is possible to find at any time industrial organiza- 

 tions in any stage of development from the stage of individual endeavor 

 to the corporation or the trust. So, too, among animals grades of 

 organization exist with their attendant differentiation into parts and vary- 

 ing degrees of division of labor. 



^ Experiments have shown that this statement requires some qualifications which 

 cannot be given here. See works of Loeb, Morgan and others on regeneration. 



